3. A General Note on Art

Art is a form of an action through which people can express their thoughts and ideas. With the medium of Art people can be able to pass information to others. It is a spontaneous manifestation of one’s imagination. Art is impossible without skill, high self standards, purpose, strength of mind, rising struggle and talent. Objects of Art are like documentaries of a thought. It can reflect the world that has departed and thus can be the source of presentation of the ideas of previous ages.^[1] Art is considered as a medium of civilization of a country and it is regarded as the hall mark of the culture of that country. It reminds a strong source of history. In Sanskrit, the word Art is denoted by the term kalā.^[2] Kaṃ lāti iti kalā^[3] is the Sanskrit derivation of the term kalā. Here the term kaṃ denotes ānandaṃ i.e., pleasure^[4] and the term lāti means to give^[5] . So, from the derivation of the word kalā, it is known that kalā i.e., Art is that which gives happiness.

The history of Indian Art covers approximately five thousand years which presents a rich and almost continuous record.^[6] The story of Art flourishes in the Indus Valley, in the third millennium B.C. This idea has been revealed by the remains of highly developed civilization in the Punjab and Sindh.^[7] With the expansion of the Aryan territory from the Indus to the Ganges, Art and culture got an upward turn in the whole land. Aryan people were completely familiar with the Arts of dancing, singing, weaving, building, making ornaments of gold and silver and the like.

The chronological order of the development of Indian Art as stated in The Heritage of Indian Art is as follows-^[8]

1. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are the chief centers of Indus valley Art and culture and these two civilizations belong to 3000-2250 B.C. The people of the Indus valley civilization seems to be very creative in the arts of housebuilding, stone and clay statuary, bronze casting, making of ornaments of gold and silver, ivory carving, weaving etc.

2. Aryan development in Northern India contains the Vedic and the Epic periods and these periods belong to 2500 B.C.-1500 B.C.

3. The Mahājanapada period belongs to 1500-600 B.C.

4. Rājagṛha is the capital of the Empire of Magadha which comprises the period after Mahājanapada period. The influence of Pātaliputra and Nanda dynasties of 650-325 B.C., Gautama Buddha of 623-543 B.C and Mahāvīra of 599-527 B.C. had been seen in the art and culture of that time. The cyclopean walls of Magadha and the fortifications of Rājgir are decorated with the paintings of that time.

5. The Maurya period belongs to 325-185 B.C. This period have been adorned with early stone sculpture, Monolithic pillars, stupas and the earliest chaitya halls in the reign of Candragupta (322-298 B.C.) and Aśoka (273-232 B.C.).

6. Śuṅga period belongs to 185-72 B.C. and this period consists of the stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi with stone railings and gateways.

7. Śatavāhana period of Art contains chaitya halls in western India and early stupas of Bhattiprolu and Amarāvatī. The Śatavāhana period belongs to 220 B.C to 200 A.D. The Śatavāhana period contains a long journey of civilization.

8. Kuśāṇa period belongs to 1 A.D.-176 A.D. This period includes Mathura school of sculpture, in where the Buddha images has been originated. Gāndhāra school of sculpture in Northwestern India is also a remarkable contribution in the field of Art in the Kuśāṇa period.

9. Gupta Period comprises the time from 320 A.D to 600 A.D. The Gupta period is regarded as the Golden age of literature and Art in Indian History. Stone temples at Sanchi, Bhumra, Deogarh, brick temple at Bhitargaon etc. are the greatest construction of Art in Gupta Period. The Dhamekh stupa at Sarnath, Fresco painting on the walls of the caves of Ajanta and Bagh are also the remarkable contribution of the people of Gupta period.

10. Pāla and Śena dynasties of Magadha and Bengal belongs to 700-1200 A.D. These two dynasties give great contribution towards the field of Art and Architecture. Brick temple of Paharpur, stone sculptures and bronzes are famous in that time.

11. Cālukya dynasty belongs to 550-642 A.D. The Cālukya dynasty has also a bright value in the field of Art and Architecture. The Temples of Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal, excavated Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu cave temples at Ellora are the greatest monuments of Cālukya dynasty.

12. Rāstrakūṭa Dynesty contains the architecture of Kailasha temple at Ellora, Siva temple situated in the Elephanta caves of Maharashtra etc. The Rāstrakūṭa Dynesty belongs to the period from 757A.D to 973 A.D.

13. Hoyaśala and Yādava dynasties of Karnataka belong to the period from 1111A.D to 1318 A.D. These two dynasties comprise the Architecture of temples of Halebeedu and Belur.

14. The Pallavas of Kanchi belongs to the kingdoms of the Far South and the time of the Pallavas are determined as 600-750 A.D. This period of civilization contains the maṇḍapas and monolithic stone temples at Mahabalipuram and structural temples at Kanchi.

15. Thanjavur is the capital of Colā dynasty. The temples of Thanjavur and Maadurai are the greatest contribution of Colā dynasty.

After that the arrival of Muslim rulers bought some new elements of Art and Architecture like floral motifs, domes and beautiful calligraphy to India. The Islamic Architecture found its privilege under the Mughal empires, who constructed many beautiful forts, palaces, mosques and gardens. New elements of Gothic, Imperial, Christian and Victorian architectural styles were introduced into the Indian Architecture during the British period.^[9]

There is a big controversy among the Indian and Western scholars about the classification of Art. Indian tradition, basically includes sixty four Art forms are acknowledged. The references of sixty four kinds of kalā are found in the Bhāgavatapurāṇa^[10] , Saivatantras^[11] , Kāmasūtra of Vātsyāyaṇa etc.

The list of sixty four kinds of Art is given here according to the Kāmasūtra of Vātsyāyaṇa^[12]

1. Gīta i.e., Vocal music.

2. Vādya i.e., Instrumental music.

3. Nṛtya i.e., Dance.

4. Nāṭya i.e., Drama

5. Ālekhya i.e., Painting.

6. Viśeṣakacchedya i.e., cutting of different designs on Bhūrjapatra for decorating the forehead.

7. Taṇḍulakusumavalivikāra. Taṇḍula means rice and kusuma means flower. The art form taṇḍulakusumavalivikāra denotes creating various designs with coloured rice grains and flowers for decorating mansions or temples.^[13]

8. Puṣpāstaraṇa i.e., Floral decorations

9. Daśanavasanāṅgarāga i.e., colouring teeth, garments, hair, nails, body and other toiletries.

10. Maṇibhūmikākarma i.e., decoration of the floor.

11. Śayanaracana i.e., arrangement of bed, sofa, divan etc.

12. Udakavādya i.e., playing of musical instrument like muraja.^[14]

13. Udakāghāta i.e., Water sports^[15]

14. Citrāśca yoga i.e., the application of secret formulas and mantras.

15. Mālyagrathanavikalpa i.e., making various garlands

16. Śekharakāpīḍayojana i.e., head decoration with garland and Headgear.^[16]

17. Nepathyaprayoga i.e., dressing and decorating a body.

18. Karṇapatrabhaṅga i.e., making designs called karṇapātra.

19. Gandhayukti i.e., proper uses of perfumes.

20. Bhūṣaṇayojana i.e., making ornaments.

21. Aindrajāla i.e., magic and creating illusion.

22. Kaucumārāśca yoga i.e., preparation of ointments.

23. Hastalāghava i.e., deftness in manual work.

24. Vicitraśākayupabhakṣyavikārakriyā i.e., cooking of various leaves, soup, food etc.

25. Pānakarasarāgāsavayojana i.e., preparing juice and drinks.

26. Sūcīvānakarma i.e., needlework.

27. Sūtrakrīḍā i.e., making models from yarns or threads.

28. Vīṇāḍamarukavādyā i.e., playing Vīna and Damaruka, a special kind of Drum.

29. Prahelikā i.e., composing and solving riddles and rhymes.

30. Pratimālā i.e., a game in which one party recites a verse and the opposite party recites another which begins with the same letter as that on which the last verse ended.^[17]

31. Durvācakayoga i.e., reciting verses difficult to repeat, tongue twister and so on.

32. Puṣṭakavācana i.e., recitation.

33. Nāṭakākhyāyikādarśana i.e., knowledge of dramas and stories.

34. Kāvyasamasyāpuraṇa i.e., composing other lines following a line which is given.

35. Paṭṭikāvetavānavikalpa i.e., caning of wood frames of coats, chairs etc.

36. Takṣakarma i.e., making of mechanical aids.

37. Takṣaṇa i.e., carpentry.

38. Vāstuvidyā i.e., architecture.

39. Rūpyaratnaparīkṣā i.e., knowledge about precious metals and stones.

40. Dhātuvāda i.e., knowledge of metals.

41. Maṇirāgākarajñāna i.e., knowledge of jewel, colours and mines.

42. Vṛkṣāyūrvedayoga i.e., horticulture and gardening

43. meṣakukkuṭalāvakayuddhavidhi i.e., art of cock fighting, ram fighting and quail fighting.

44. Śukasārikāpralāpana i.e., training parrot and mynas to speak and sing.

45. Utsādane saṃvāhane keśamardane ca kauśalam i.e., proficiency in pressing, shampooing and dressing hair.

46. Akṣaramuṣṭikākathana i.e., writing and understanding of code words and words in particular way.

47. Mlecchitavikalpa. The word mlecchitavikalpa is an amalgamation of two words viz. mlecchita and vikalpa. Mlecchita means to speak indistinctly like a foreigner or barbarian who does not speak Sanskrit^[18] and vikalpa means option. Due to the addition of the word vikalpa with the term mlecchita, the term mlecchitavikalpa denotes the art of speaking of a new language, though indistinctly, as an option of communication.^[19]

48. Deśabhāṣāvijñāna i.e., knowledge of languages of other provinces and of various dialects.

49. Puṣpaśakaṭikā i.e., making flower carriages.

50. Nimittajñāna i.e., art of addressing spells, charms, auspicious and bad signs etc.

51. Yantramātṛkā i.e., memory-training

52. Dhāraṇamātṛkā i.e., recitation of verse.

53. Saṃpāthya i.e., deciphering by code.

54. Mānasī i.e., knowledge of etymology.

55. Abhidhānakopa i.e., knowledge of lexicography.

56. Chandojñāna i.e., prosody and Rhetoric.

57. Kriyākalāpa i.e., Art of Impersonation.

58. Vastragopana i.e., wearing garments artfully.

59. Dyūtiviśepa i.e., various games to be played with dice.

60. Akṣarakrīḍā the playing of akṣara, a kind of dice-game.

61. Vālakrīḍanaka i.e., making of dolls.

62. Vainayikīna i.e., vaināyikī means knowledge of proper behavior or the training of elephants and other domestic animal.

63. Vaijayikīna i.e.,knowledge of science of victory.

64. Vyāyāmika i.e., physical exercise.

The western scholars like Monier Monier Williams, Plato and Aristotle also gave their view on the classification of Art. Monier Monier Williams accepts two divisions of Art which are-Practical Art and Mechanical or Fine Art.^[20] Again by calling Poetry as an Art and Art as an imitation of nature he divided Art.^[21] It is important to note here that after Aristotle, in the middle age, Art was divided by the point of view of education as-Professional Art and Liberal Art.^[22]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Vasudeva S. Agrawala, The Heritage of Indian Art, p. 1

[2]:

Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.261

[3]:

Śabdakalpadruma, Vol-2, p.58

[4]:

Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.252

[5]:

lā lāti dānam/ Śabdakalpadruma, p.213

[6]:

Vasudeva S.Agrawala, The Heritage of Indian Art, p. 3

[7]:

Ibid., p. 3

[8]:

Ibid., p. 3-4

[9]:

Dr. Raj Kumar (Ed.), Essay on Indian Art and Architecture, p. 1

[10]:

ahoratraiścatuḥṣaṣṭyā saṃyattau tāvatīḥ kalāḥ/ Śrīmadbhāgavatapurāṇa, 10.45.36

[11]:

Śabdakalpadruma, Vol.2, p.58

[12]:

gītam, vādyam, nṛtyam, nāṭyam, ālekhyam, viśeṣakacchedyam, taṇḍulakusumavalivikārāḥ, puṣpāstaraṇam, daśanavasanāṅgarāgaḥ, maṇibhūmikākarma, śayanaracanam, udakavādyam, udakāghātaḥ, citrāśca yogāḥ, mālyagrathanavikalpāḥ, śekharakāpīḍayojanam, nepathyaprayogāḥ, karṇapatrabhaṅgāḥ, gandhayuktiḥ, bhūṣaṇayojanam, endrajālāḥ, kaucumārāśca yogāḥ, hastalāghavam, vicitraśākayupabhakṣyavikārakriyā, pānakarasarāgāsavayojanam, mūcīvānakarmāṇi, mūtrakrīḍā, vīṇāḍamarukavādyāni, prahelikā, pratimālā, durvācakayogāḥ, pustakavācanam, nāṭakākhyāyikādarśanam, kāvyasamasyāpuraṇam, paṭṭikāvetavānavikalpāḥ, takṣakarmāṇi, takṣaṇam, vāstuvidyā, rūpyaratnaparīkṣā, dhātuvādaḥ, maṇirāgākarajñānam, vṛkṣāyūrvedayogāḥ, meṣakukkuṭalāvakayuddhavidhiḥ, śukasārikāpralāpanam, utsādane saṃvāhane keśamardane ca kauśalam, akṣaramuṣṭikākathanam, mlecchitavikalpāḥ, deśabhāṣāvijñānam, puṣpaśakaṭikā, nimittajñānam, yantramātṛkā, dhāraṇamātṛkā, saṃpāthyam, mānasī, kāvyakriyā, abhidhānakopaḥ, chandojñānam, kriyākalāpa, chalitakayogāḥ, vastragopanāni, dyūtiviśepāḥ, ākarṣakrīḍā, vālakrīḍanakāni, vainayikīnāṃ vaijayikīnāṃ vyāyāmikīnāṃ ca vidyānāṃ jñānam, iti catuḥṣaṣṭiraṅgavidyāḥ kāmasūtrasyāvayavinyaḥ/ Kāmasūtra, 1.3.16

[13]:

akhaṇḍataṇḍulairnānāvarṇai sarasvatībhavane kāmadevabhavane vā maṇikuṭṭimeṣu bhaktivikārāḥ, tathā kusumairnānāvarṇairgrathitaiḥ śivaliṅgādipūjā’rthabhaktivikārāḥ, atra grathanam mālyagrathana evāntarbhūtam/ Jayamaṅgalāṭīkā, Kāmasūtra, 3. p.30

[14]:

udake murajādivadvādyam/ Jayamaṅgalāṭīkā, Kāmasūtra, 3. p.31

[15]:

[...] Jayamaṅgalāṭīkā, Kāmasūtra, 3.p.31

[16]:

śikhāsthāne….. nānāvarṇaiḥ puṣpairviravanaṃ yojanam/ Jayamaṅgalāṭīkā, Kāmasūtra, 3.p.31

[17]:

pratiślokaṃ kramādyatra sandhyāyākṣaramantimam/ paṭhetāṃ ślokamanyonyaṃ pratimāleti socyat// Jayamaṅgalāṭīkā, Kāmasūtra, 3. p.32

[18]:

Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.837

[19]:

yatsādhuśabdopanibaddhamapyakṣaravinyāsādaspaṣṭārthaṃ tanmlecchitaṃ gūḍhavastumātrārtham/ Jayamaṅgalāṭīkā, Kāmasūtra, 3. p.39

[20]:

Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, P.261

[21]:

Lokesh Chandra Sharma, A Brief History of Indian Painting, p.4

[22]:

Ibid., p.5