Page 312 of: The Nyaya theory of Knowledge

THE FALLACIES OF INFERENCE 295 objection to a given argument based on the ground that we
can perceive the truth of the conclusion even without the
argument. The anupalabdhisama is an argument to invali-
date a given argument from non-perception, on the ground
that non-perception cannot be perceived. The nityasama is
an argument to prove the eternality of all non-eternal things
on the ground that they are eternally non-eternal. The
anityasama is an argument to prove the non-eternality of all
things on the ground of their resembling a non-eternal thing
in some respect or other. The karyasama is an argument
opposed to a given argument from the nature of an effect, on
the ground that an effect may have very different natures,
and so cannot be taken to lead to a single conclusion.'
The nigrahasthāna, which literally means a ground of
defeat, is a fallacy which is due either to a misunderstanding
or to the want of understanding. It is said to be of twenty-
two kinds. These are: pratijñāhāni or weakening one's pro-
position by adducing such examples as run counter to it;
pratijñāntara or shifting the proposition; pratijñāvirodha or
contradicting the proposition; pratijñāsannyāsa or renounc-
ing the proposition; hetvantara or shifting the ground;
arthāntara or shifting the topic; nirarthaka or the meaningless.
statement like abracadabra ; avijñātārtha or the unintelligible
statement; apārthaka or the incoherent statement; aprāpta-
kāla or the wrong order of the parts of an argument; nyūna
or the suppression of any part of an argument; adhika or the
duplication of the middle term or the example; punarukta or
the meaningless repetition of any part of an argument;
ananubhāṣaṇa or the refusal to answer a question; ajñāna
or ignorance of the proposition; apratibha or the inability to
give a reply to the argument; vikṣepa or evasion of the
argument; matānujñā or admission of the defect in one's
argument; paryyanuyojyopekṣaṇa or overlooking a defect in
the argument; niranuyojyänuyoga or finding fault with the
1 Vide NS., 1. 2. 18; 5. 1. 1 ff.