Arthas (The objects to be known)

According to Naiyāyikas, there in nothing is the world which cannot be known by our sensual organs. Even then they have limited the objects to be known to twelve. Starting with Ātma (Soul), Śarīra (the Body) , Indriya (Sensual Organs), Artha (The objects to be known), Buddhi (Intellect), Manas (Mind), Pravṛtti (Action), Doṣa (Fault) and Pretyabhāva (Rebirth) are the main objects to be known, in the opinion of Naiyāyikas.

Naiyāyikas divide dravyas (substances) into nine^[1]. Among them pṛthvi (earth) comes first. Naiyāyikas see guṇas (qualities) separate from Dravyas. There are twenty four qualities starting with rūpa (form). Dravyas are the substratum of guṇas. No guṇa can exist without depending on Dravya. Thus Pṛthvi is said to be a substratum of several guṇas, among which the Rūpa (form), Rasa (taste), Gandha (odour) and Sparśa (touch) undergo a change when heat is applied^[2]. Similarly, the second substance namely Jala (water) is the abode of taste, form and touch. Tejas (light) is a substance in which Rūpa (form) and Sparśa (touch) dwell. The fourth substance Vāyu (air) is the abode of touch alone. The fifth dravya namely Akāśa gives place to only one guṇa called Śabda.

This division of Naiyāyikas is not accepted by the opponents. Naiyāyikas say that the earth got four guṇas namely rūpa, rasa, gandha and sparśa among others. But the sensual organ of earth is nose. This nose cannot receive the guṇas except gandha. This is ridiculous. If four guṇas dwell in pṛthvi, the special organ of pṛthvi should be able to receive all the four guṇas. Similarly the organ of jala namely tongue receives the quality of rasa (taste) alone but not the other two guṇas namely rūpa and sparśa. So, what Naiyāyikas say cannot be accepted.

In reply to this, Naiyāyikas say that each dravya has got a special guṇa of its own. Accordingly pṛthvi has a special guṇa called gandha. The other dravyas are also having their own special guṇas. It is because of this, a sensual organ of pṛthvi, jala, tejas, vāyu and ākāśa cannot receive the other gunas which are not their own. But, at the same time it cannot be denied that the guṇas other than gandha namely rūpa and sparśa are also perceivable in pṛthvi. Similarly in jala the existence of, rūpa and sparśa also can be realized for which the reason should be found out.

The opponents find the reason for this in the relationship between dravyas. Dravyas like pṛthvi keep a relationship with the other dravyas like jala, tejas etc. This is the reason why rūpa, rasa and sparśa are felt in earthy objects along with gandha. Among the five big elements each one is pervaded with the other ones. Guṇas like rasa, rūpa and sparśa are connected because of the mutual relationship of elements. The same idea is elaborately established in great old purāṇas.

Naiyāikas are not satisfied with this explanation. The earthy and watery objects become visible. There are certain rules that govern the visibility of an object. An object should have a big size, sub organs and clear form so as to be visible. If the argument of the opponent is accepted the bodies which are luminous alone will be visible. The earthy and watery objects would not be visible since they are not luminous. But according to the experience the earthy and watery substances become visible in the presence of light that is a common cause of visibility. So the smell, taste, etc., are not felt due to the mutual relationship of elements. On the contrary, if the mutual relationship between elements is said the reason for the visibility of objects, no answer could be found out for the invisibility of air since it shares a common abode with light.

There are all the six types of tastes in earthy objects while water has only one taste madhura (sweetness). Hence it is clear that mere relationship between elements has nothing to do with the difference in their qualities. The earthy and watery forms become visible within the help of light. Here light plays as an agent only for the visibility of those objects. Moreover, the earth ones sensual colours while the water has a single colour. In spite of this, the earthy and watery objects become visible. It is further discovered that the colour of both light and water is white while the first is illuminative and the other is not.

After refuting the argument of the opponents Naiyāyikas explain the reason for the visibility of objects. Each sensual organ could sense a special quality as in the case of nose, tongue, eye, skin and ear, sensing smell, taste, form, touch and sound respectively. Each sensual organ attains an importance due to its having a special quality. All the organs cannot receive all the qualities. Nose though an organ of earth cannot receive all the qualities dwelling in earth. Odour (smell) alone is received by nose. It is the quality abundant in earth. The receiving power of a sensual organs is called its “importance”. The abundance of a special quality makes its more acceptable than others.

While discussing the relationship between the objects and the sensual organs, Naiyāyikas succeed in finding out some hidden truths in nature. The sensual organs according to them are having their own qualities. The organs like nose actually visualize the qualities existing in them while they contact with the objects having the concerned quality. It is in this way, the nose which is having an odour for itself receives the outward odour with the help of its own quality. At the same time, nose cannot feel the odour which is in itself. Similarly, the outward forms of objects are received by the eye. But the eye cannot see its own form. In short the cause of knowledge is what lacking in all these cases.

A doubt is raised in this regard. It is said that a sensual organ is unable to get the knowledge of its own quality. But there is a difference in the case of ear which receives sound in its own place. In reply to this, Nayāyikas say that the ether which is the abode of sound is not a sensual organ. Moreover a sound does not establish another sound. The other sensual organs like nose, eye etc., are seen receiving the qualities outwardly. Nor it is inferred. At the same time, a hollow like ether inside is inferred as receiving the sound. Similarly, the ether is inferred as having the quality of sound. When the quality of each organ is sensualised, the quality of ether as sound is inferred by the method of pariśeṣa (deduction). The soul cannot be said as an instrument to receive the sound since he is the listener, not the receptor. If mind or manas is imagined as receiving the sound there will be no deaf persons, since nobody in the world is without mind. The elements like earth and water do have their own organs like nose and tongue respectively. But none of them is seemed to hold the organ of ear. So, after distributing each quality to each organ the sound which is left behind is endorsed, with ear. It is in this way, the ear and ether are identified as the same.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

tatradravāṇipṛthviyapterūpādicatuṣṭayam pṛthivyām pākajamanityam cajovāyvākāśakāladigātmamanāṃsi navaiva, Tarka Saṃgraha, p. 29. ibid.p.58

[2]:

rūpādicatuṣṭayam pṛthivyām pākajamanityam ca. ibid p. 58.