4. Nyaya-Vaisesika Philosophy (Introduction)

i) The Nyaya and the Vaisesika Philosophies and their Synthesis Both Nyaya and Vaisesika were separate in their origin and in their early development. But a link between the two schools have found from the very beginning. The Vaisesika and the Nyaya philosophies of the ancient and medieval periods supplemented each other in respect of their subjects and styles. Therefore, both are called allied systems. Both are actually coalesced The six or seven categories of the Vaisesika were entirely absorbed in the treatise on Nyaya philosophy and the Nyaya categories of pramana in its developed form were actually absorbed in the treatises on Vaisesika philosophy. The Vaisesika and the Nyaya systems only together constitute 'Indian logic'. The two systems had been for long treated as parts of one 42. Ibid. 43. Ibid. 44. 45. The philosophy of Nyaya-Vaisheshika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School p.86. samkhyam yogo lokayatancetyanviksiki. Arthaskstra 1.2.10

15 46 whole. It is sometime suggested that both the philosophy branched off as independent streams from the same original source. According to Haribhadra, author of the Sad-darsana-samuccaya the Naiyayikas and the Vaisesikas worshipped one and the same God, viz. Siva. He begins his account of the Naiyayikadarsana with the verse: Aksapadamate devah srsti-samhara-krc Sivah.4 In regard to Vaisesikas he says: devatavisaye bhedo nasti naiyayikaih samam. This evidence points to the conclusion that Nyaya and Vaisesika were systems not only of one school but of one sect, viz. Mahesvara. The Nyaya is metaphysical one as it chiefly concerned with the method of debate and syllogism and the Vaisesika deals with physics, as it is based on the six categories. But a close link between the two schools seems to have existed from the earliest times and they have always been held to be allied systems. The two schools were complementary to each other. The Vaisesika represents the positive, constructive or creative side while the Nyaya represents its defensive side. The syncretic Nyaya-Vaisesika School occupies a unique position in the development of Indian philosophical thought. The terminology of this school has played an important role in giving shape to Indian philosophical thinking in general. According to Dr.S.Radhakrishnan these two systems represent the analytic type of philosophy, and uphold common sense and science. The Naiyayika trend of accepting something as true only when 47 46. Tarkabhasa-prakasika p.ii. 47. Indian Philosophy Vol.II. p.29.

16 it is proved by reason makes it more acceptable even to the moderners with a bias for science. The critical treatment of metaphysical problems and the examinations of objects of knowledge with the aid of the logical cannons are the distinctive features of the school of Nyaya. Hence the study of the Nyaya system comes to be essential as an introduction to other systems also. The Vaisesikas also earned distinction by their recognition of the atomic constitution of things.4 49 ii) Subject-matter of Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy 48 There are three main divisions of the subject-matter of the NyayaVaisesika philosophy. Prof. D.N.Shastri divides it in the following way 50: (i) Logic and the method of debate, (ii) Physio-chemical theories relating to the four atomic elements, and (iii) Metaphysics, based on the six categories. It would appear that the first of these divisions, viz. logic is the principal subject of the Nyaya, while the remaining two chiefly belong to the Vaisesika 48. "The classical studies of the hindus comprise the five subjects of Kavya (literature), Nataka (drama), Alamkara (rhetoric), Tarka (logic) and Vyakarana (grammer). Whatever other specialized studies a student may take up later, the preliminary course includes logic, which is the basis of all studies. Every system of Hindu thought accepts the fundamental principles of the Nyaya logic and even in criticising the Nyaya system, uses the Nyaya terminology and logic. The Nyaya serves as an "introduction to all systematic philosophy."Indian Philosophy Vol.II. p.32 49. A Critique on Sabda p.3. 50. The philosophy of Nyaya-Vaisheshika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School p.10.

17 School. But in the manuals of syncretic school, whether primarily belong to the Nyaya or to the Vaisesika School, all the three topics are treated Of the three divisions of subject-matter, logic alone got the prime position in the traditional study of the syncretic school since the advent of Gangesa in 12th century. Ignoring metaphysics, he concentrated on logic and developed very subtle conceptions and definition of the components of inference, such as 'inferential mark' (linga) or 'invariable concomitance' (vyapti). The second branch of the subject-matter, viz. the physio-chemical theories of the Vaisesika is in the nature of early attemts at the understanding of physical world. Such attempts are now only of historical interest to us. There may be found some valuable data relating to this branch, which have been collected and assessed by Dr. Brajendra Nath Seal in his admirable work "The Positive Sciences of Ancient Hindus" ,51 The third division of subject-matter viz. the metaphysics may be designated as the Nyaya-Vaisesika realism. It has a lasting value and can make a positive contribution to philosophy in general. This branch has generally been neglected in traditional study. The imperative need of Indian philosophy is that the pure metaphysics of the Nyaya-Vaisesika school be separated from other material with which it is mixed iii) Common characteristics and difference between the Nyaya and the Vaisesika The Nyaya and the Vaisesika philosophy are known as samanatantra or cognate schools of philosophy. According to Dr. S. Radhakrihnan both the 51. Ibid.

18 systems are basically similar and branched off from a hypothetical common original system. Both the systems supplement each other and finally combine into a single system. Both the systems believe in the realization of bliss (nihsreyasadhigama) from the knowledge of the true nature (tattvajnana) of the categories (padarthas).52 Both the systems establish the existence of Atman with the help of inference (anumana).53 From the study of few original treatise such as Varadaraja's Tarkikaraksa, Kesava Misra's Tarkabhasa, Sivaditya's Saptapadarthi, Visvanatha's Bhasapariccheda and Siddhanta Muktavali, Annambhatta's Tarkasamgraha and Dipika, Jagadisa's Tarkamrta, Laugaksi Bhaskara's Tarkakaumudi, it can be said that both the Nyaya and Vaisesika philosophy are not varied and opposite in character but allied and complimentary philosophical doctrines. But in few points both the systems differ from each other. The Naiyayikas recognize sixteen categories while the Vaisesikas only seven.54 Kanada does not mention abhava along with the six padarthas. But it can be said that Kanada recognizes abhava also as a padartha.55 It is not mentioned because the idea of abhava invariably depends on the idea of the 'bhava-padarthas' and the idea of 'bhava-padarthas' should 52. 53. pramanaprameyasamsaya--thananamtattvajnanannihsreyasadhigamah. Nyayasutra 1.1.1; i. icchadvesaprayatnasukhaduhkhajnananyatmanolingam. Nyayasutra 1.1.10. - ii. atmatvabhisambandhadatma prasadhako 'numiyate.Prasastapada-bhashya p 360. 54. Nyayasutra 1.1.1; Vaisheshika-sutra 1.1.4. 55. Vaisheshika-sutra 1.2.1 and 9.1.1.

19 56 automatically lead to the idea of the relative caregory of abhava. Visvanatha in his Bhasapariccheda says that the Naiyayikas are also not opposed to the recognition of the seven categories of the Vaisesikas 57. Vatsyayana clearly admits that the six padarthas viz. dravya, guna, karma, samanya, visesa, and samavaya are to be recognized under the perview of what is mentioned as prameya in the list of the sixteen categories of Gotama 58. Another distinguishing feature is the Vaisesikas recognition of visesa as a separate category. By this Vaisesikas give stress on its atomic theory. Moreover, the Naiyayikas recognize four pramanas viz. pratyaksa, anumana, upamana and sabda, while the Vaisesikas admit only pratyaksa and anumana. We have found that regarding the atomic theory the Vaisesikas accept the theory of pilu-paka (heating of atoms), while the Naiyayikas admit the theory of 'pitharapaka '(heating of molecules) 59 The Naiyayikas are pure jnana-vadins while some of the great Vaisesikas are jnana-karana- samuccaya-vadins. 56. cf. ete ca padarthahpradhanatayoddistah/ abhabastu svarupavanapi noddistah, pratiyoginir ipanadhinanirupanatvat/ na tu tucchatvat/ Kiranavali of Udayana quoted in Bhasapariccheda p 18 57. dravyam gunastatha karma samanyam savisesakam, samavayastatha'bhavah padarthah sapta kirtitah, Bhasapariccheda k. 2. '-eteca padartha vaisesika-prasiddhah naiyayikanamapyaviruddhah' Muktavali 58. "astyanyadapi dravyagunakarmasamanyavisesasamavayah prameyam tadbhedena caparisamkhyeyam'. Vatsyayana-bhashya under Nyayasutra 1.1.9. 59. A History of Indian Philosophy p. 327.

20 iv) Works on Nyaya, Vaisesika and combined NyayaVaisesika Nyaya works Nyayasutra :- Gautama's Nyayasutra is the first systematic work on Nyaya philosophy. It is the first work written in sutra style in Sanskrit literature. It is divided into five books, each containing two chapters called Ahnikas. S.R.Iyer says that the total number of sutras of Nyayasutra varies from 523 to 532 with different authorities.60 S.C.Vidyabhusana collected 536 sutras and another 20 omitted sutras. So, it is difficult to say the exact number of Nyayasutras. It is varied from time to time. According to S.C. Vidyabhusan, the Nyayasutra, as it exist at present, is not entirely the work of one person, but has been enlarged by interpolations in various ages. The principal subjects of the Nyayasutra may be grouped under the following heads: 1.Pramana, 2.Prameya, 3.Vada, 4.Avayava, 5.Anya-mata-pariksa 62. It is much more common to the Caraka-Samhita. This is assigned by some to a period between the 2nd and the 5th cencury A.D. by others to the 4th century A.D. While others believe it came into being in the first century A.D. Again other believe that the earlier portion of the work is assigned to the 3rd century B.C., while the later portion is believed to have originated in the post Christian era. 63 61 The Nyayasutra has enjoyed a very great popularity since its 60. Tarkabhasa p.19. 61. History of Indian Logic p.46. 62. Ibid. p. 50. Also in Indian Philosophy Vol. II. p.46. 63. A Companion to Sanskrit Literature P. 262.

21 composition. Numerous commentaries from time to time have centered round it.64 65 Vatsyayana-bhasya :- The earliest commentary on Nyaya-sutra written by Vatsyayana is known as Vatsyayana-bhasya or Nyaya-sutra-bhasya. It was composed at about 450 A.D. Nothing is known about him exept that he must have flourished before Dinnaga, the founder of the Buddhist logic. As a pupil of Vasubandhu Dinnaga is supposed to have lived between 450 A.D. and 500 A.D. Again, it is found that Vatsyayana flourished at about 150 years after Goutama. Jacobi places him in 300 A.D.67 According to S.C.Vidyabhusan, Vatsyayana was a native of Conjeevaram and lived about a century before Dinnaga. 68 His full name is Paksilasvamin Vatsyayana. Here, the author propounds modifications of the sutras of Gautama in short sentences comparable to the Vartikas in the Astadhyayi. In style it resembles the Mahabhasya of patanjali. 66 Nyaya -Vartika :- Upon the Nyaya-bhasya, Uddyotakara composed a gloss (uddyota) called Nyaya-Vartika. For this reason he is known as Uddyotakara. Originally his name is Bharadwaja. He is known as 64. Sacred Books of Hindus Vol. VIII. p.xiii. 65. Tarkabhasa p. 24. 66. Development of Nyaya Philosophy And Its Social Context p.10. 67. A History of Indian Philosophy p.307. 68. History of Indian Logic pp.116-117. 69. Ibid. p.124.

22 Pasupatacarya also, as he was a preceptor of Pasupata Saiva. 70 Here the author explains the Nyayasutra and Vatsyayana-bhasya and defends Vatsyayana. He wrote this bhasya to establish the Nyaya views and to refute the criticism of the Buddhist logician Dinnaga (who flourished at about 500 B.C.), Nagarjuna and other Buddhist logicians preceded him. This is evident from the opening lines of the Nyaya-vartika in which he says: 'Aksapada the foremost of sages propounded a sastra for the peace of the world; and I shall write an expository treatise on it to remove the veil of errors cast by quibblers. S.C. Vidyabhusan mentions that Uddyotakara flourished about 635 A.D. and he was a contemporary of Dharmakirti. 72 ,71 Nyayavartika tatparyatika :- This commentary was written by Vacaspati Misra on the Nyaya-Vartika of Uddyotakara. He was a native of Mithila and must have flourished at about 841 A.D. 73 He wrote this commentary to make clear the right meaning of Uddyotakara's vartika which was sinking in the mud as it were through numerous other bad writings." 74 70. 71. "iti sriparamarsibharadvajapasupatacarya srimaduddyotakarakrtau nyayavartike pancamodhyayah .' Nyayavartika colophon. yadaksapadah pravaro muninam samaya sastram jagato jagada/ kutarkikajnananivrttih hetuh karisyate tasya maya nibandhah// Nyayavartika opening lines. 72. History of Indian Logic p. 124. 73. Ibid. p. 133. 74. dustarakunibandhapankamagnanam. A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I. p 307.

23 Nyayavartika tatparyaparisuddhi :- A sub-commentary on Nyayavartika-tatparya-tika is 'Nyaya-vartika-tatparya-parisuddhi' by Udayanacarya. A tentative date is given by S. N. Dasgupta that Udayana flourished at about 984 A.D. This book includes elaborate notes on the Nyayavartikatatparyatika [nyaya-vartika-tatparya-tika] of Vasaspati Misra. These basic works. Nyayabhasya, Nyayavartika, Nyayavartikatatparyatika and Nyayavartikatatparyaparisuddhi are called Nyayacaturgranthika and these works provided a logical foundation to Indian philosophical thinking. Besides. Vardhamana Vardhamana wrote a sub-commentary on that called Nyayanibandhaprakasa in the year 1225 A.D. Padmanabha wrote a subcommentary on that, called Vardhamanendu and Sankara Misra (1425 A.D.) wrote a sub-commentary on that, called the Nyaya tatparya mandana. We find a lot of of commentaries. viz. Nyayalamkara by Srikantha. Nyayalamkaravrtti by Jayanta. Nyaya-vrtti by Abhyayatilaka Upadhyaya. Nyaya-sutroddhara by Vacaspati Misra. Nyaya-rahasya by Ramabhadra. Nyaya-siddhanta-mala by Jayrama. Nyaya- samksepa by Govinda Sanna, Mitabhasini yrtti by Mahadeva Vedanti. Nyaya prakasa by Kesava Misra. Nyayabodhini by Goverdhana. Nyaya-sutra-vyakhya by Mathuranatha etc. In the seventeenth century Visvanatha wrote an independent short commentary known as Visvanathavrtti on the Nyayasutra and Radhamohana wrote a separate commentary on the Nyayasutra, known as 75. Sacred Books of Hindus Vol. VIII. p. xiii.

24 .76 Nyayasutravivarana In addition to these works on the Nyayasutra many other independent works of great philosophical value have been written. Some of them are as follows: Nyayamanjari:- It is an independent Nyaya works written by Jayanta. He appears to have flourished in Kashmir in the 9th century." Jayanta chooses some of the Nyayasutras for interpretation and he discusses the Nyaya views quite independently and criticizes the views of other systems of Indian thought of his time. It is far more comprehensive than Vacaspati's Tatparyatika. Its style is most delightfully lucid. In it he minutely discusses the nature of words and their meaning. He rejects the Annitabhidhanavada of the Mimamsakas of the Prabhakara School but partially accepts the Abhihitanvayavada of the Bhatta Mimamsakas, amending the latter view by recognizing tatparya as a function. Jayanta rejects the idea of sphota and criticizes the doctrine of Apoha, Ksanabhanga, Srutyapramanya and Isvarabhanga. He also criticizes the Buddhist's denial of soul and their doctrine of the unreality of the external word. The Buddhist view that there are only two means of valid knowledge, - viz. perception and inference, is also refuted by him. Nyaya Kusumanjali :- It is also called Kusumanjali written by Udayana. Here he seeks to prove the existence of God. It is written in Karikas with a prose explanation. This work aught to be read with its commentary Prakasa by Varddhamana (1225 A. D.) and its sub-commentary Makaranda by Rucidatta (1275 A.D.). Udayana's Atmatattva Viveka is a polemical work 76. A History of Indian Philosophy p.307. 77. A Companion to Sanskrit Literature p.42.

25 against the Buddhists, in which he tries to establish the Nyaya doctrine of soul. The date of Udayana is found in the last three quarters of the 11th century and he is in fact the real founder of the Navya-Nyaya school of Mithila. Nyaya Kalika :- A work on Nyaya philosophy, written by Jayanta. It gives a bare out line of the author's exposition of Nyaya-sutra dealing with sixteen categories. According to the author himself it is meant for beginners. It is a commentary on Bhasarvajna's "Nyaya-sara". Nyaya-Sara :- It is a short tract on logic by Bhasarvajna. It deals with only pramanas or sources of valid knowledge. It recognizes three pramanas viz. pratyaksa, anumana, and agama. Incidentally the author deals with topics like fallacies, chala, jati, vada, moksa etc. Nyaya kanika :- It is written by Vacaspati Misra in 850 A.D. Detailed description of this work is not available. Nyaya Tattvaloka :- It is highly authoritative commentary by Vacaspati Misra on Gautama's Nyaya-Sutra. It is also known as Nyaya-Tattvaloka or simply Tattvaloka. Sabda-sakti-prakasika :- It is written by Jagadisa Tarkalamkara. It is a subtle examination of the topics of Sanskrit Grammar in accordance with the principles of Nyaya philosophy. Tattva Cintamani :- This book opens the door of Navya-Nyaya. It is an epoch making work on Nyaya philosophy by Gangesopadhyaya, who 78. Ibid. p.96.

26 flourished about 1200 A.D. In four books it expounds, with much subtlety, the means of proof recognized in Nyaya philosophy, incidently expounding the metaphysics of the school. It was on the basis of this work that the NavyaNyaya school of Bengal and Mithila were founded Raghunatha Siromani wrote a commentary on this book known as Tattvacintamani Didhiti Vaisesika works Vaisesika sutra :- The earliest work of Vaisesika philosophy is Vaisesika Sutra of Kanada. It contains ten adhyayas or chapters each divided into two parts called ahnikas and consists of 370 sutras. It begins by proposing to explain dharma like Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini. It seems as irrelevant to the main purpose of Vaisesika, viz. the description of the nature of padartha (category). There is a verse quoted in an old commentary of the Kalapa Vyakarana, in which it is said that the description of the six categories by Kanada in his Vaisesika-sutras, after having proposed to describe the nature of dharma, is as irrelevant as to proceed towards the sea while intending to go the mountain Himavat". The meaning of dharma is here defined as that which brings about 'exaltation' (abhyudaya) and the 'supreme good' (nihsreyasa)80. The date of the work is uncertain. We have mentioned earlier that Vaisesika sutras were written before Badarayana's Brahmasutra and the work appears to have received addition from time to time. 79 79. dharmam vyakhyatukamasya satpadarthopavarnanam/ 80. himavadgantukamasya sagaragamanopamam//As quoted in A History of Indian Philosophy p.282. "yato 'bhyudayanihsreyasasiddhih sa dharmah. 'Vaisheshika-sutra 1.1.2.

27 Vaisesika-sutra-bhasya :- This is the commentary on Vaisesika-sutra written by Prasastapada. It is peculiar in character. Unlike other bhasyas, it does not follow the sutras. It is an independent dissertation based on their main contents. It is also known as Padarthadharmasamgraha. There are other two bhasyas on the Vaisesikasutras viz. Ravana-bhasya and Bharadvaja-vrtti, but these are now probably lost.¹ Prasastapadabhasya has been expounded by several writers of whom Vyomasiva, Sridhara and Udayana are the most important. Their works are Vyomavati, Nyayakandali and Kiranavali respectively.82 Srivatsa's Lilavati, Jagadisa Bhattacarya's Bhasyasukti and Samkara Misra's Kanadarahasya are some other commentaries of Prasastapadabhasya. 83 Vyomavati :- It is the earliest commentary on Prasastapadabhasya. 8³ It is not a commentary at all, but named so in all the commentaries on it. It is a treatise planed and executed by its author on the basis of the aphorism of Kanada which are cited occasionally in support of his treatment of the subject. Nyayakandali :- In this work, Sridhara Bhatta for the first time set forth the theistic interpretation of the Nyaya-Vaisesika view. He was flourished at about 10 th century A.D. 84 $ 81. Indian Philosophy Vol.II. pp. 180-181. 82. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophy p.425. 83. Indian Philosophy Vol.II. p.180. 84. A Companion to Sanskrit Literature p.92.

28 Kiranavali :- It is a celebrated commentary on Prasastapadabhasya on the Vaisesika-sutra. It is written by Udayana. Tarka Kaumudi :- It is a work by Laugaksi Bhaskara. It opens with a salutation to Vasudeva, pays due obeisance to Aksapada and Kanada. It explains the seven Vaisesika categories, prama and aprama. This book discusses two kinds of valid knowledge, perception and inference. Thus, it is a Vaisesika tretise. But in some places it is called as a Nyaya work. Combined Nyaya-Vaisesika Works 85 Bhasa-Pariccheda :- It is a practical guide-book, by Visvanatha Nyayapancanana, to Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophical systems. It deals with the doctrines of both the systems as a whole and presents a fusion of the two traditions. It is in 168 memorial verses divided into four parts viz. pratyaksa, anumana, upamana and sabda. Some of the sutras occurring in Suresvara's Manasoitasa appear to be borrowed from older sources. It deals with the seven categories and the four means of valid knowledge, viz. perception, inference, comperision and verbal testimony. So far as categories are concerned, it agrees with Vaisesika. In regard to means of knowledge, it agrees with Nyaya philosophy. This book is written in the last part of 16 th century A.D. Nyaya Siddhantamanjari:- It is a work on syncratic Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy, written by Janakinatha Bhattacarya. It appears about 1550 A.D. Tarkika-Raksa :- It is written by Varadaraja an important work of the Nyaya- Vaisesika system of philosophy. 85. Ibid. p.347.

29 Tarkamrta :- It is a philosophical guidebook, ascribed to Jagadisa, a Nyaya-Vaisesika work. It appears to have been composed around 1700 A.D. Some Schools doubt Jagadisa's authorship in this regard. Tarkasamgraha:- This book is written by Annam Bhatta. It is a practical guidebook to the Schools of Nyaya and Vaisesika. It consists of four chapters which are called pratyaksa, anumana, upamana and sabda respectively. It has a lucid commentary by same author, known as Tarka-samgraha-dipika. Saptapadarthi :- It is one of the earliest guidebook to Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy, by Sivaditya. It is earlier than Gangesa. It represents the Nyaya and the Vaisesika principles as a part of one whole. It starts as an exposition of the categories and introduces the Nyaya logic under the quality of cognition. Nyayalilavati :- Another work of Ballabha Acharya, follwing chiefly Kanada system. It discussed the elements of the science. It is an elementary treatis on the Vaisesika philosophy containing 2700 slokas. Nyayasiddhantadipa :- It is written by Sesadhara. The work deals with the topics of Nyaya and Vaisesika philosophy in a promiscuous way 8. The date of the work is about 1300 A.D. There is a commentary on this viz. Nyayasiddhantadipika by Sesanatha. • Moreover, so many commentaries and independent works are found of which some are missing and some remains half-done. Kesava Misra's Tarkabhasa is one of the best works in the field of Nyaya-Vaisesika syncretic School. With the help of Tarkabhasa one can easily enter into the field of Nyaya sastra. 86. History of Indian Logic p.397.