2. Nyaya Philosophy (Introduction)

i) Meaning of the word Nyaya The word 'Nyaya' popurarly signifies 'right' or 'justice'. The Nyayasastra is therefore the science of right judgement or true reasoning. It is derived from the root nr. The term Nyaya literally means that by means of which the mind is led to a conclusion. In another definition Nyaya means logic or reasoning that by which the desired meaning is brought out clearly. The word 'logic' is etymologically connected with the Greek word 'logos', which means both 'thought' and 'discourse'. 'Nyaya' is called Indian logic. Logic is designated in Sanskrit not only by the word 'Nyaya' but also by various other words which indicate diverse aspects of the science. For 6. History of Indian Logic p.40 7. niyate anena iti nyayah. Indian Philosophy Vol.II. p. 43. 8. niyate vivaksito arthah yeneti nyayah. Tarkabhasa p. 3.

5 instance, it is called 'Hetuvidya' or 'Hetusastra' the science of causes, "Anviksiki' the science of inquiry', 'Pramana-sastra' the science of correct knowledge, 'Tattva-sastra' the science of categories, 'Tarka-vidya' the science of reasoning, 'Vadartha' the science of discussion and 'Phakkikasastra' the science of sophism.10 Panini, the celebrated Sanskrit grammarian, who is supposed to have flourished about 350 B.C.", derives the word 'Nyaya' from the root 12. It conveys the same meaning as 'gam'-to go. ''Nyaya' as signifying logic is therefore etymologically identical with 'nigama' the conclusion of a syllogism. According to S.C.Vidyabhusana the technical meaning of the word Nyaya signifies a syllogism or speech of five parts and the Anviksiki was called Nyayasastra, when Nyaya constituted its special topic. 13 Vatsyayana says, "Nyaya functions neither with regard to things unknown nor with regard to things that are definitely known, but it functions only with regard to things that are doubtful."14 Vatsyayana defines Nyaya as a critical examination of objects of knowledge by evidences.' 9. anviksiki dandanitistarkavidyarthasastrayoh. Amarakosa 1.5.5. 10. Sacred Books of Hindus Vol. VIII. pp. i and ii. 11. Ibid. p.i. 12. 13. 14. 15. adhyayanyayodyavasamharasca' Astadhyayi of Panini, 3/3/122. as quoted in Ibid. History of Indian Logic p. 40. - 'tatra nanupalabdhe na nirnite 'rthe nyayah pravartate kimtarhi samsayite'rthe'. Vatsyayana-bhashya under Nyayasutra 1.1.1. pramanairarthapariksanam nyayah. Ibid.

6 ii) Historical development of Nyaya The beginnings of the Nyaya belong to the Pre-Buddhistic period, though a scientific treatment of it was undertaken some time about the period of early Buddism, and the main principles were well established before the 16 third century B.C. According to S. C. Vidyabhusan the Nyayasutra inaugurates the sutra or aphoristic style in the Sanskrit literature at about 550 17 B.C. The development of Nyaya (Indian logic) is usually divided into three periods.18 1. The ancient period, starting from the Vedic times to the end of fourth century A.D. or till the appearance of the Nyayabhasya of Vatsyayana; Vedas are the early literary production of India. These Vedas are composed between 1500 B.C. and 600 B.C.19 From the point of view of the subject-matter, the Vedas can be classified into three sections viz. the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas. All human civilizations grew up by a process of evolution. The conception of the soul has developed in the course of ages. The stages of development may be clearly seen in the doctrine of soul found in the Samhitas, Brahmanas and Upanisads.The Upanisad constituted a very Samhitas, important branch of study called Atmavidya (the science of soul) Addhyatmavidya (the spiritual science) or Brahmavidya (the divine science) 16. Indian Philosophy Vol. II. p. 36. 17. Sacred Books of Hindus:Vol. VIII. p.xi. 18. Tarkabhasa p.26. 19. History of Indian Logic p.2.

7 which is the foundation of all sciences. Atmavidya was at a later stage called Anviksiki, the science of inquiry. The formation of Anviksiki starts from the time of Upanisads and got a definite shape at about 650 B.C. The great sage Manu used Anviksiki as an equivalent for Atmavidya 20 His followers considered it synonymous with the Upanisad. In fact Atmavidya is different from Anviksiki. Kautilya (about 327 B.C.) recognized Anviksiki as a distinct branch of study over and above the three, Trayi (the Vedas),vartta (commerce), and Dandaniti (Polity) enumerated in the school of Manu. 21 According to Vidyabhusan the distinction between Atmavidya and Anviksiki lay in this, that while the former embodied certain dogmatic assertions about the nature of the Soul and the latter contained reasons supporting these assertions. 22 Thus, Anviksiki includes two subjects viz. atma (soul) and hetu (theory of reasons). Vatsyayana remarks that Anviksiki without the theory of reasons would have like the Upanisad been a mere atmavidya or Adhyatmavidya.23 So Anviksiki has both the philosophical and logical aspects. 20. 21. 22. 23. traividyebhyastrayim vidyat dandanitisca sasvatim/ anviksikim catmavidyam vartarambhansca lokatah // Manusamhita 7.43. anviksiki trayi varta dandanitisceti vidyah / Arthaskstra 1.2.1. p.4. History of Indian Logic p.5. 'imastu catasro vidyah prthak prasthanah pranabhrtamanugrahayo upadisyante, yasam caturthiyam anviksiki nyayavidya. tasyah prthak prasthanah samsayadayah padarthah. tesam prthakvacanamantarena adhyatmavidyamatramiyam syat, yathopanisadah. Vatsyayana-bhashya 1.1.1.

8 S.C.Vidyabhusana observes that the bifurcation of Anviksiki into philosophy Medhatithi Gautama 25 and logic commenced at about 550 B.C. when expounded the logical side of this. 24 According to S. Radhakrishnan there is no doubt that Gautama's logic sprang from the dialectical tournaments, the sound of which filled the durbars of kings and the schools of philosophers. Nyayasutra was not followed by several hundred years, by any other original treatises on Nyaya from the pen of the Brahmanic writers. But these writers brought out numerous commentaries which served not only to elucidate and develop the Nyayasutra, but to review critically, in the light of the sutra. These commentaries are the store-houses of valuable information on philosophy and logic. 26 Vatsyayana is not the immediate successor of Gautama. He offers different explanations of some sutras, indicating thereby that there were earlier commentators who did not all agree on the interpretations of the sutras. Besides, Vatsyayana refers to Gautama as a sage of remote past and quotes from Patanjali's Mahabhasya and Kautilya's Arthasastra and also from the Vaisesika Sutra.² 2. 27 The medieval period extending from 400 A.D. to 1200 A.D. or till the end of Udayana. During medieval period the Buddhist and Jaina schools of logic became the most popular schools over Hindu logic which had to struggle 24. History of Indian Logic p.6. 25. Indian Philosophy Vol.II. p.34. 26. History of Indian Logic p.115. 27. Indian Philosophy Vol.II. p.38.

9 strenuously for its self-preservation. The Jainas were not so violent in their attacks on their opponents and their missionary and propagandist zeal was not so pronounced as that of the Buddhists. It was a triangular fight in which the Hindus in the end emerged victorious, the destruction of Buddhist monasteries and universities like Vikramasila by the Muslims also helped the Hindus in prevailing. The contributuions of the Jaina and the Buddhists thinkers bring about a change in the outlook. 3. The modern period starts from 1200 A.D. onwards. Gangesa's Tattvacintamani is the standard text of the modern school. Gangesa lived at Mithila in the last quarter of the twelfth century. From the time of Udayana, scolars are trying to merge the two systems the Nyaya and the Vaisesika together. Udayana himself has wrote two prakaranas one each on Vaisesika and Nyaya systems. But it is Gangesopadhyaya who fused the two systems together boldly into a grand comprehensive whole --Tarkasastra. There is no parallel work in the whole range of philosophical literature that a single book brought about such a revolutionary change in the realm of logic and epistemology of the Hindus. The Tattvacintamani brought a change of outlook and treatment in discursive and dialectical works in all the systems of Hindu philosophy written after the 14th century. iii) Founder of the Nyaya System 28 The founder of the Nyaya system, sage Gautama, is also known as and Dirghatapas. 29 The Padmapurana, Skandapurana, Aksapada 28. 29. Tarkabhasa 35. Raghuvamsam 11.33.

10 30 Naisadhacarita etc. mentioned Gautama as the founder of the Nyaya system. The names Gotama and Gautama point to the family to which he belonged while the names Aksapada and Dirghatapas refer respectively to his meditative habit and practices to long penance. From the Rgvedic age several Gautamas were found who enriched the treasure of knowledge by writing valuable works and served as teacher. In 'Nyayakosa" there is a legend behind the name Aksapada (having eyes in feet) as applied to Gautama. Gautama was so deeply absorbed in philosophical contemplation that one day during his walks he fell unwittingly into a well out of which he was rescued with great difficulty. God therefore mercifully provided him with a second pair of eyes in his feet to protect the sage from further mishaps." He has been designated as Aksapada in the Vayupurana.³ Dr. Vidyabhusan goes against this when he observes that "Gautama and Aksapada seem both to have contributed to the production of 30. i. kanadena tu samproktam sastram vaisesikam mahat / gautamena tatha nyayam samkhyam tu kapilena vai// Padmapurana Uttarakhanda, ch-263. 17-75, as quoted in History of Indian Logic p. 17. ii. gautamah svena tarkena khandayan tatra tatra hi/ Skandapurana, kalika khanda, ch-xvii. as quoted in Ibid. iii. muktaye yah silatyaya sastramuce mahamunih/ gotamam tamavetaiva yatha vittha tathaiva sah// Naisadha-carita, 17-75. as quoted in Ibid A History of Indian Logic p.48. 31. 32. Vayupurana, adhyaya. 23. sloka. 207.

11 the work." 33 In the Mahabharata 34, it is found that Medhatithi and Gautama were the names of the same person, one being his proper name and the other is family name. People of Mithila point out that a village named Gautamasthana is the birth place of Gautama. It is situated on the outskirt of Mithila at a distance of 28 miles north-east of modern Dorbhanga. There is a mud-hill of considerableheight (supposed to be the hermitage of Gautama) at the base of which lies the celebrated Gautama-kunda (Gautama's well). The water of that well is like milk to taste. It nourished as a perennial rivulet and so it is called "Ksirodadhi" or "Khiroi". It literally signifies 'the sea of milk'. There in Gautamasthana a fair is held every year on the 9th day of the lunar month of Caitra (March-April). 35 Date of Gautama: Regarding the date of Gautama, we find several data. The Satapatha Brahmana mentions Gautama along with Asurayana 36 33. 34. History of Indian Logic p.49. medhatithirmahaprajno gautamastapasi sthitah/ vimrsya tena kalena patnyah samsthavyatikramam// Mahabharata 12.265.45. 35. Sacred Books of Hindus Vol. VIII. p.vii. 36. jatukanaryajjatukanaryo bharadvajat bharadvajo bharadvajaccasurayanatcca gautamatca gautamo.....etc. Satapatha-brahmana madhyandiniya recension. khanda 14. adhyaya 5.

and 12 Vayupurana³7 37 states that Gautama flourished during the time of Jatukarnya Vyasa. According to madhukanda and yajnavalkya kanda of the Satapatha Brahmana (kanva recension) Jatukarnya was a pupil of 38 Asurayana who lived about 550 B.C. From these remarks we can say that Gautama also lived at about 550 B.C.