Chapter 7.3 - The Brihaddharma-purana (study)

This work [brihaddharma-purana]⁹⁰, which richly deserves careful study for the

⁹⁰ Only two editions of this Upapurana have hitherto been printed, viz., the Vangavasi edition printed in Bengali characters and the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. printed in Devanagari. These two editions differ in readings in numerous cases. Their corresponding chapters are the following: Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. Purva-khanda, chapters 1-30 Madhya-khanda, chapters 1-30 Uttara-khanda, chapters 1-14 " chapters 15-21 = Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. chapters 1-30 (called Purva-khanda). chapters 31-60 (called Madhya-khanda). Uttara-khanda, chapters 1-14. Though both these editions show numerous signs of careless editing, we have preferred the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. mainly for two reasons, viz., (i) the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. does not contain the last seven chapters (i.e. chapters 15-21) of the Uttara-khanda of the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed., and (ii) it does not number the chapters of its Purva-khanda and Madhya-khanda separately. Chaps. 15-21 of the Uttara-khanda of the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed., which are wanting in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., must not be taken as spurious. They occur in almost all the Manuscripts of the Brhaddharma-purana Moreover, the final chapter of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. (which is the same as chap. 14 of the Uttara-khanda of the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed.) clearly shows that it is not the concluding chapter of this Upapurana. It does not contain a single word on the praise of this work, nor does it mention Suta who is the main reporter. On the whole, this chapter (14) shows no sign of conclusion of the work. For Manuscripts of this work, see (i) Julius Eggeling, VI, pp. 1226-9, No. 3402 (Manuscript No. 1313 a). [This is a complete Manuscript written in 'modern Devanagari' script. Its contents are the same as those of the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed.] (ii) Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 319, 4199 and 4649. [All these Manuscripts are complete and are written in Bengali characters, and the number of their chapters and their contents are the same as those of the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. Of these, Manuscript No. 319 consists of folios 1-164 and is dated Saka 1763, and the chapters of its first two Khandas are numbered continuously; No. 4199 consists of folios 1-239 and appears to be much older than the preceding Manuscript; and Manuscript No. 4649 consists of folios 1-347 and must be the oldest of these three.] (iii) R. L. Mitra, I, pp. 235-6, No. 414. [This is an incomplete Manuscript written in Bengali script.] (iv) Haraprasad Shastri, V, pp. 781-4, Nos. 4123-7 (Manuscripts Nos. 4590, 2537, 4406, 4464 and 4505 respectively). [All these Manuscripts are written in Bengali characters. Of these, No. 4127 is complete and contains all the seven concluding chapters of the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed., and No. 4126, which is incomplete, contains only three of these seven chapters.] (v) Chintaharan Chakravarti, p. 116 (Manuscript No. 309). [This is an incomplete Manuscript written in Bengali script and dated 1212 Vangabda.] (vi) M. A. Stein, Catalogue, p. 205. [This Manuscript is written in Devanagari script and dated 1801 Vikrama Era.}

reconstruction of the social and religious history of Bengal, calls itself a 'Dharma-samjnita' or 'Dharma-namaka' Purana in three of its verses (viz., I. 1. 12 and 22, and III. 21. 1) and is thus liable to be confused with the Dharma-purana, 81 which is a quite different work. But its real title is 'Brhaddharmap.', and this title occurs in all its chapter-colophons as well as in many of its verses 82. Though the Brhaddharma-purana calls itself an Upapurana and claims the highest position among the Upapuranic works 83, it is included in no list of eighteen Upapuranas except that contained in chap. 25 of its Purva-khanda Yet, we

81 For Manuscripts of this Dharma-purana, which also is an Upapurana, see Haraprasad Shastri, V, pp. 777-781, Nos. 4121-2 (Manuscripts Nos. 3309 and 3657 respectively); Roth, Tubingen Cat., 13; R. L. Mitra, VI, pp. 244-7, No. 2182; Hiralal, Catalogue, p. 217; and so on. This work is found incorporated in the Srsti-khanda of the Padma-purana as published by the Anandasrama Press (Poona), Venkatesvara Press (Bombay) and Vangavasi Press (Calcutta). More detailed information about this Upapurana will be given later in course of our analysis of this work. ** Brhaddharma-purana I. 25. 26, and 30. 50; III. 20. 17 and 24; III. 21. 1 and 11. ** Ibid., I. 30. 49-50; III. 20. 17 and 20; III. 21. 6.

398 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS should not neglect this work for reasons which we shall see hereinafter. The present Brhaddharma-purana consists of three Khandas or parts, viz., Purva, Madhya and Uttara. The Purvakhanda begins with the gayatri adapted to Visnu and states in its introductory chapter that once Suta, 'son of Romahar- sana', came to the Naimisa forest where Saunaka and some other sages were engaged in performing a long-continued sacrifice. At the sight of Suta the sages asked him why he came there, what holy discourses he had heard from Vyasa 'born of the son of Saktri', and who were Vyasa's audience. In reply to their question, Suta said that being requested by Javali at Vadarikasrama to speak on topics relating to dharma and artha, Vyasa spoke out to Suta and other sages the 'holy Purana named Dharma' (punyam puranam dharmasamjnitam) which was characterised by the following topics: Description of varnasrama-dharma; praise of dharma, and its nature in the different ages; enumeration of gurus; eulogy of parents; enumeration and praise of holy places; praise of different gods and their worship; benefits of performing religious ceremonies on particular Tithis; enumeration of eighteen Puranas and Upapuranas; glorification of cows and Brahmins; dialogue between Suka and Jaimini on creation etc.; stories on the glorification of Brahma, Visnu and Mahesa; description of luminaries; glorification of the Ganges; summary of the story of the Ramayana; various relevant stories. Next, at their request to narrate this 'Dharma-namaka Purana' (puranam dharmanamakam), Suta saluted Vyasa and reproduced what Vyasa had said to Javali at Vadarikasrama on the above-mentioned topics. Thus the subject-matters of the Brhaddharma-purana have been introduced. As a matter of fact, the Brhaddharma-purana deals with all the above-mentioned topics, and this will be evident from the following analysis of its contents 84. 84 We shall see hereinafter that the Brhaddharma-purana is a work of Bengal and reflects the condition of Hindu religion and society in this province in the days of its author. So, the contents of this work have been given a bit elaborately in the following pages.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS Purva-khanda. 399 Chapter I-Praise of dharma, and the necessity of its practice. Advice to people not to forsake their own dharma even under great difficulties. The four constituents of dharma, viz., satya, daya, santi and ahimsa. Chapter 2-Qualities to be classed under each of the categories satya, daya, santi and ahimsa. Relatives (viz., mother, father, elder brother, paternal grandfather, fatherin-law, maternal uncle, maternal grandfather, paternal uncle, elder sister, father's sister, mother's sister, and wives of paternal grandfather and others) who can be called gurus. Eulogy of father and mother (pitr-stava, matr-stava), who are given the highest position among the gurus. Manifold benefits of implicit obedience and service to parents. Chapter 3.-Story of a fowler who attained knowledge of distant things and events by rendering whole-hearted service to his parents and who referred a Brahmin named Krtabodha to another pious fowler named Tuladhara at Benares for instructions on dharma after reproaching him (i.e. Krtabodha) for practising austerities by forsaking his old parents and young wife at home and for feeling proud of being able to burn, by means of his angry glance, a crane which passed stool on his body. Story of Tuladhara who, being inspired by the sight of a bird's attainment of a divine body as a result of giving water to its dying father, rendered respectful service to his parents and attained divine knowledge. Tuladhara's instructions to Krtabodha return home, serve his parents, and do the duties of a householder. to Chapter 4-Praise of a spiritual preceptor (i.e. Tantrika guru), who is to be regarded as superior even to parents and who should preferably be a householder belonging to the Brahmin caste. Acceptance of mantras by generations from the members of a single family 85. Respect to be shown to a tasmad guror vamsa-jatam vayo'lpam api panditam/ gurum kuryat tu diksayam avicarya guroh kulam// (Verse 10).

400 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 86 spiritual preceptor by drinking the water with which the feet of the preceptor are washed, by regarding him as the same as the Tantra and the deity, and by various other acts. Permission to women to be gurus 87. Strict secrecy to be observed with respect to one's guru, Tantra and mantra³¸ Three births of Brahmins, viz., saukra (i.e. natural birth from the parents), savitra (i.e. investiture with the sacred thread), and daiksa (i.e. initiation to Tantric worship); and two births of women and Sudras, viz., saukra and daiksa. Bad effects of distinguishing between the spiritual guide (guru), the (relavent) Tantra and the deity to be worshipped (devata) and also between Ganga, Durga, Hari and Isa. Religious and household duties of an ideal wife. Duties of a widow. Chapter 5. Being requested by Javali to speak on tirthas Vyasa says that tirthas exist in various forms, viz., speech, water, land, body, limbs, time, trees, places resorted to by gods, places where there are images of gods, and so on. He then reports in chapters 5-30 the interlocution between Devi and her attendants Jaya and Vijaya. This interlocution was made on the following topics: Praise of Ganga (the Ganges) as the best of all tirthas. Jaya and Vijaya's eulogy of Ganga (ganga-stava), who is described as moon-white, four-handed, three-eyed, dressed in white garments, seated on a shark, and holding a lotus and a golden pitcher of nectar in two of her hands and assuring safety and conferment of boons with the other two". Origin of all holy places from Ganga. Eulogy of Ganga by these holy places. ** Cf. gurum tantram devatam ca bhedayan narakam vrajet. (Verse 22 a). 87 striyas tu guru-sambandhad gurur apy ucyate dvija. (Verse 19 b). 88 gurus tantras ca mantras ca gopaniyah prayatnatah/ prakasat siddhi-hanih syad ity aha bhagavan chivah// (Verse 20). 89 saukram tatha ca savitram daiksam ca janma sammatam/ 90 janma-trayam brahmananam stri-sudranam dvi-janmata// (Verse 21). gurum tantram devatam ca bhedayan narakam vrajet/ ganga-durga-harisanam bhedakrn naraki yatha// (Verse 22). * dhyaye sive tvam sasi-sukla-varnan caturbhujam padmavarabhayamrtaih/

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 401 [In this chapter Ganga is called abheda-buddhi-rupa, abheda-buddhimat-priya, mahamalla, kokamukhi, visahari, dasahara, hrim-svarupini etc. and is identified with Brahmani, Vaisnavi, Rudrani and Kali, the last being said to be fond of fish, meat and wine. She is also identified with the river Sita on the east, Bhadra on the north, Vamksu on the west, and Alakananda on the south.] Chapter 6. Names of different holy places including Sitalaka (on the east), Alakalaka (on the south), Vamksubhadra (on the west), Bhadrottara (on the north), the four Ganga-dvaras, Prayaga ('where the Yamuna and the Sarasvati fall into the Ganges'), Vasantaka-ksetra, Varanasi, the meeting place of the Ganga with the Padmavati (i.e. the river Padma of Bengal), Triveni (where the Yamuna and the Sarasvati are separated from the Ganges), the Ganga-sagara-samgama (where the Ganges falls into the ocean by dividing herself into a thousand streams) 92, and the houses of Brahmins, the temples of Brahma, Visnu and Siva, and the seats of Devi (devi-pithah) situated on the banks of the Ganges. Chapter 7.-Sanctity caused to a place by the presence of lotus-plants, Tulasi plants and Bilva trees. Story of the origin of the Tulasi plants at Vrndavana from the dead body of Vrnda (wife of Dharmadeva residing on the Kailasa mountain), who became a Raksasi as a result of her husbands' curse and died by fasting for a week and listening all the while to the names of Hari sung by the Brahmins. Praise 26 25 yuktam ca sukle makare vasantim trilocanam deva-nutam alamkrtam// namah sivayai santayai gangayai te namo namah/ namo makara-vasinyai koti-candra-ruce namah// caturbhujayai padmena varenapy abhayena ca/ piyusa-purna-kanaka-ghatena ca virajitam// sarvalamkara-bhusadhyam trinetram daivatair nutam/ smitasyam gaura-vasanam sthira-nupura-sinjinim// (Verses 44-47). (See also Brhaddharma-purana II. 12. 21-22, and 19. 11-12). ** tato 'pi kathitam tirtham padmavatyah samagamah / triveni nama tirtham ca prthagbhute ca yatra vai// sarasvati ca yamuna prayaga-phala-dayakam/ ganga-sagara-sangas ca tirtham paramakam matam// yatra dhara-sahasrena ganga sagaraga bhavet/ (Verses 33-35 a).

402 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS of the Tulasi plants, in every leaf of which the twelve-syllabled mantra 'om namo bhagavate vasudevaya' is said to remain. Chapter 8.-First origin of the Tulasi plant on the Karttiki Amavasya. Description of Tulasi as a youthful goddess adorned with various kinds of ornaments and a vermilionred garland and having a dark-blue complexion (syamangi), a beautiful face covered with swarms of bees, and two hands, in which there are a conch-shell and a lotus 93. Results of worshipping Visnu with Tulasi-leaves during the different months of the year. Praise of the Tulasi plant and of service rendered to it. Chapter 9.-Going to narrate the story of the origin of the Bilva tree Devi speaks on the unity of Siva and Visnu and the respect shown to each other by these two gods on their way to each other's residence. [In this connection the following regions have been mentioned as being situated one above the other, viz., Brahma-loka, Siva-loka, Vaikuntha, Durga-loka and Goloka, the highest position being said to be occupied by the lastmentioned one. Of Durga-loka and Goloka it has been said that on earth 'the former exists under the name of Kamarupa which is the best of all places', and the latter is known by the name of Vrndavana".] Chapter 10. Visnnu's confession to Laksmi that Siva is not only dearest to him but is identical with himself. Names of flowers with which Siva is to be worshipped. Laksmi's worship of Siva with a thousand lotuses, of which two, being found missing, were going to be replaced with her own breasts. Origin of the Bilva tree from that breast of Laksmi which was severed by her and offered to the Siva-linga, Laksmi's eulogy of Siva. >> syamangi caru-vadana dvi-bhuja smita-bhasini/ sankha-padma-kara sveta-vasana yuvati sati// nanalankara-bhusadhya sinduraruna-malika/ madhupair gandha-sammugdhair alidha-vadanambuja// (Verses 5-6). durga-lokas tatas cordhyam yatra sarvah striyah subhah// yah prthivyam kamarupa iti desottamah sakhi/ tata urdhvam ca goloko lasat-tejomayah parah// yah prthivyam samakhyato namna vrndavanabhidhah/ (Verses 5 b-7 a).

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 403 Chapter 11.-Origin of the Bilva-tree on the Vaisakha- sukla-trtiya. Praise of the Bilva tree and of service rendered to it. Benefits of worshipping Siva with Bilva-leaves. Holiness of Haridra-nagara 95 (where Siva resides as Vaidyanatha), Kamarupa, Kasi and Kancipura in consequence of the presence of Bilva trees there. Chapter 12.-Origin of four Amalaki trees, on Maghasitaikadasi, from the four clear drops of tears (amalani kani) fallen from the eyes of the joyous Devi and Laksmi who wanted to worship Visnu and Siva respectively with things selected by themselves (sva-kalpitena dravyena). Praise of Amalaki trees, and the results of using their leaves in the worship of Visnu and Siva. Chapter 13. Names of holy places, viz., Prabhasa, Prthudaka, Vindusaras, Brahmatirtha ('where the Sarasvati flows towards the east'), and Naimisaranya. Story of the origin of the Vaisnava holy place Naimisaranya from the disappearance of the divine being named Nimisa who was born of Brahma. Chapter 14. Names of holy mountains, rivers and places. The names of the holy places include the following: Gokarna, which is called 'Siva-sthala'; Kamarupa, which is situated on the bank of the Brahmanada and where Devi's female organ fell; 'the pitha named Mangalakosthaka" in the city (puri) of Ujjayini where Devi dwells as Mangalacandi and grants boons to her worshippers'; the place where one's paternal blood-relations live"; Vaidyanatha; Vakre- svara, where there is the sacred river named Papahara and which is said to have been dealt with elaborately in the * It is the same as modern Deoghar in Santal Parganas. 96-97 ujjayinyam tatha puryam pitham mangalakosthakam/ subha mangalacandyakhya yatraham vara-dayini// jnatayo bahavo yatra matam tat tirtham uttamam/ (Verses 14-15 a). The city of Ujjayini, mentioned above, is the same as the ancient town of Ujani which comprised the modern villages of Kogram, Mangalkot and Aral situated on the bank of the river Ajaya in Katwa subdivision in the district of Burdwan in Bengal. Ujani, which is one of the fifty-one pithas, is mentioned in Trikandasesa, Tantracudamani, etc. For further information about this holy place see Chapter I, footnote 125 above.

404 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 'Brahmandakhya Purana'; Sripurusottama situated on the side of the salt-ocean; and Kamakhya, which is one of the best tirthas. Chaps. 15-16.-Mention of various other tirthas, viz., feet of a Brahmin, the back of a cow, the limbs of one's own wife, one's own eyes and the right ear, and so on. Description of Kala-tirthas (i.e. tirthas in the form of auspicious time), which are said to be Vaisnava, Sakta Saiva, Saura etc.-Identification of kala (time) with Narayana; division of kala into bhuta, bhavisyat and vartamana, as well as into paramanu, ksana, danda (sixty of which make one human day-and-night), ahoratra, tithi, paksa, masa, rtu, ayana and samvatsara; counting of masas from Asvina, and their classification into saura and candra" 99; description of four months, viz., Asadha, Karttika, Magha and Vaisakha, as tirthas 100. Benefits of the performance of various pious acts during these four months and of residence at Kasi in Vaisakha, at Sripurusottama in Asadha, at Kamarupa in Karttika, and at Prayaga in Magha. Praise of death in these four months at Kasi, Purusottama, Kamarupa and Prayaga, and especially in the Ganges. Description of various religious rites and ceremonies to be observed on particular Tithis in different months (especially in Vaisakha, Karttika and Magha), viz., Aksaya-trtiya, Jahnu-saptami, Naga-pancami, Dyuta-pratipad, Bhratrdvitiya, Ratanti Caturdasi, Sri-pancami (in Magha and Caitra), Makari Saptami, Bhismastami, Siva-caturdasi, Mahastami, Asokastami, Rama-navami, Damana-caturdasi, Dasahara, Mahajyaisthi, Asadha-krsnapancami (for upakarman of the Vajasaneyins), Krsna-janmastami, Sravanadvadasi, and many others. Methods of worshipping Visnu (under different forms and names), Ganga, Surya, Nagadevi, Siva, Yama, go (cow), Laksmi, Mahakali, Sarasvati, Devi, * danda manusya-manena sasti ratrimdivam matam (I. 15. 10 a). * asvinadva mata masah saura-candra-pramanatah (I. 15. 15 b). 100 tatrasadhah karttikas ca magho vaisakha eva ca/ tirthany uktani masa vai catvaro 'bhista-dayakah// (I. 15. 17).

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 405 Ramacandra, Kama, Uma, Indra-and-Saci, and Agastya in different parts of the year. Chapter 17. Performance of sraddha on the different Tithis in Asvina-krsnapaksa. Chaps. 18-22.-Devi's brief narration of the story of the Ramayana (up to Rama's return to Ayodhya from Lanka with Sita) in order to explain the introduction of the autumnal worship of herself. [This story contains some innovations such as Hanumat's talk at Lanka with Candika (also called Kali and described in a hymn as having two, four, six, eight, ten or eighteen hands), who protected Lanka but left for Kamarupa as soon as Hanumat set fire to Lanka, god's invocation of Candi on a Bilva tree according to Candi's advice, and Candi's consequent blessings on Rama and description of the method of her own worship in the month of Asvina. The method of Devi-worship, as given in chap. 22, consists of the following operations: bodhana of Devi in a Bilva tree on the Krsna-navami Tithi¹01; worship of Devi in the Bilva tree up to Sukla-sasthi; bringing of Devi to the house constructed for her worship, on the Sukla-saptami Tithi, and her worship; fasting, Devi-worship, performance of homa, sacrifice of animals, and keeping awake at night on on 'Mahastami' Tithi; samdhi-puja at astami-navami-samdhi; performance of homa, Devi-worship, animal-sacrifice, and sitting up at night during the 'Mahanavami' Tithi; and singing of amorous songs containing words denoting male and female generative organs and sexual intercourse, on the 'Vijaya Dasami' Tithi 102. The Brhaddharma-purana states that though this festival is to be continued for fifteen days, Devi should be specially worshipped on two days, viz., on the Mahastami and the Mahanavami Tithi, and that during this festival people should, without distinction of caste and 101 In Brhaddharma-purana I. 22. 14 Brahma says: 102 aim ravanasya vadharthaya ramasyanugrahaya ca | akale tu sive bodhas tava devyah krto maya || bhaga-lingabhidhanais ca srngara-vacanais tatha / ganam karyam bhojayec ca brahmanams tosayet striyah // (I. 22. 33).

406 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS sex, give up their usual works (such as teaching, study, trade, agriculture etc.), be liberal in spending money, and have brotherly feelings 103.] Chapter 23. Description of a few more religious rites and festivals, viz., worship of Laksmi during the Asvina-paurnamasi; Dipanvita, to be performed on the Amavasya following the Asvina-paurnamasi; Rasotsava (Rasa festival) on the Karttiki Paurnamasi; (holy) baths, donations, and funeral ceremonies to be performed during Ardhodaya-yoga (in the months of Agrahayana, Pausa and Magha under particular naksatras); Govinda-dvadasi-vrata (which is to be performed on the Phalguna-sukla-dvadasi and in which Vasudeva is to be worshipped under the names of Govinda, Narayana etc. with the use of the twelve-syllabled mantra, the performance of homa twelve times, the offer of twelve kinds of flowers, twelve Tulasi-leaves and twelve kinds of offerings, and the citation of a hymn of twelve verses, and twelve Brahmins are to be fed with twelve kinds of palatable food); observances during the Phalguna-paurnamasi (called Manvantara), Caitra-krsna-trayodasi (called Varuni, Mahavaruni and Maha-mahavaruni under different conditions), and Caitra-sukla-trtiya (called Manvantara). Story of Varuna's determination to worship Govinda on the Bhadra-dvadasi Tithi, his fruitless search for 'Bhadriya Dvadasi' all over the world, his consequent threat to Dvadasi to flood 'the whole earth' every year on the Bhadra-dvadasi Tithi 104, his meeting with Dvadasi Devi (who is described as 'gaurangi,' 'pita-vasana', 'dvi-bhuja' and 'syama- 108 104 sarvasvair api me puja kartavya tu dina-dvayam / brahmanah ksatriyo vaisyah sudro va bhakti-samyutah || tyaktva visaya-karmani himsa-kalaha-matsaran / svaccha-citta apacaye labha-buddhi-yutah sada || nadhyapanam nadhyayanam na yuddham kraya-vikrayau / na cargho na ca karsadi kartavyam tatra vai kvacit // (I. 22. 30-32) tithe dvadasi re murkhe kim na janasi mam api / tvad-dine dharanim sarvam plavaye prativatsaram / yatha tvayi na puja syaddhareh sarvesvarasya hi // (Verse 49).

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 407 prsthika'105) in the bright half of Phalguna, and his worship of Govinda on that Phalguna-sukla-dvadasi, with the result that the custom of the worship of Govinda on the Bhadra- sukla-dvadasi was changed thenceforward to that of his worship on the Phalguna-sukla-dvadasi. [In this chapter the methods of performing Laksmipuja, Dipanvita and Rasotsava have been described as follows: In Laksmi-puja, Laksmi is to be worshipped at dusk (pradosa), and the worshippers are to fast at daytime, drink the water contained in cocoanuts after worshipping Laksmi, and avoid sleep at night. During the Dipanvita lamps are to be lighted and goddess Kali (also called Syama and Mahakali) is to be worshipped in an image at dead of night. The description of the goddess 106, as given in this chapter, shows that she has a dark complexion, dishevelled hair, a lolling tongue, heaving breasts, and four hands, in two of which she carries a sword and a severed head and with the other two she assures safety and the conferment of boon. She stands naked on Siva who remains lying on his back like a dead body 107. She has 105 Verse 51 a. 106 pujayeyur mahakalim syamam caru-caturbhujam / varabhaya-karam vame daksine 'si-nr-mundakam // samhara-kala-nivida-dhvanta-kayam digambarim / papa-kotitara-dhvantam samharantim ivojjvalam // sava-rupa-mahadeva-hrdaye paramasane | tisthantim mukta-kesim ca lalaj-jihvam hasan-mukhim // sravad-raktam srkkanibhyam danavanam bhayavaham / sattva-rupam sada suddham kevalam niskalam sivam // pinonnata-stanim devim nana-bhusana-bhusitam / brahma-visnv-indra-kaladi-pranatam kala-rupinim // yoginibhih parivrtam nrtyantibhir itastatah / dadatibhih pibantibhih sonitam madhu casavam || (Verses 12-17). 107 Going to explain why Siva lies prostrate under the feet of Kali, the Brhaddharmap. says that when, at dead of night on a newmoon day, Kali came down to the earth for killing the Asuras, the earth trembled under the weight of her feet, and consequently Siva, as a corpse, held her on his bosom. (ratrau nisitha-vyaptayam amavasyam ihaiva tu / prthvi-talam samayata kali dig-vasanambika // asuranam vadharthaya bhavaya ca suparvanam / yatha cakampe prthivi tad-bharasahanena hi //

408 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS a smiling face, and is engaged in drinking wine and blood, so much so that blood trickles from the ends of her lips. She is adorned with ornaments and is surrounded by Yoginis who dance and drink blood and wine. During the worship of this goddess, which is to be performed 'either after the method followed (in worshipping Durga) on the Mahastami Tithi or according to the Tantric method' (mahastamividhanena vidhinagamikena va), the worshippers are to sing 'Malasi songs'108, and utter words expressive of male and female generative organs, animals are to be sacrificed, clothes, ornaments, payasa etc. are to be offered, and music, dancing etc. are to be held. In the following morning the image is to be immersed in water at the brahma muhurta, 109 and fees are to be paid to the priests for worshipping the goddess for four praharas (12 hours). During the Rasa festival 110, the devotee is to observe fast at daytime, and at nightfall worship Krsna along with the gopis. In this worship, juvenile Krsna, having 'ujjvala bhava' (ujjvalam bhavam asritam) and eager to strip the gopis of their garments out of passion, 11 is to be represented by as many images as there are images of the youthful and passionate (rasadhya) gopis, and all these images are to be placed alternately and arranged into a circle, so that every image of Krsna may have an image of a gopi on each side. The images of Krsna must be adorned with garlands (called 108 tada sivah savo bhutva tam dadhara trilocanam / tada sarve sthiribhutah kurma-sesa-dharadayah // (Verses 6-8). malasi-gana-nirata bhaga-lingabhisabdinah / jitendriya jitahara jita-nidra mahasayah // puyayeyur mahakalim * * || (Verses 11-12 a). Particular kinds of songs about goddess Kali are popularly called 'Malsi gan' (Malasi gana) in Bengal. 109 The 'brahma muhurta' is the third of the four parts of the last quarter of the night. 'ratres ca pascime yame muhurto yas trtiyakah / sa brahmya iti vikhyato vihitah samprabodhane [{' (ascribed to Sumantu in 'Bhavadeviya-nirnayamrta'.-See Smrti-tattva I, p. 326). 110 See verses 21-34. 111 kama-bhavena sitkara-vasa-skhalana-lalasam. (Verse 27 b).

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 409 vanamala), armlets, anklets, tilaka marks etc., dressed in yellow garments, and furnished with an amorous look. During this worship Brahmins are to be honoured with clothes, ornaments etc., and songs, music and dancing are to be enjoyed. After the payment of fees to the priests, the images are to be immersed in water on the following day with merriment, and Brahmins are to be fed.] Chapter 24. A few more days and occasions which may be regarded as kala-tirtha, viz., Varaha-dvadasi in Marga- sirsa-sukla-paksa, Ananta-caturdasi in Bhadra-sukla-paksa, the day for the worship of Karttikeya in the month of Karttika, the time for study of the Puranas, and so on. Chapter 25. Brahma's first creation of words (vacah), letters and fifty-six languages and his subsequent authorship of grammatical works, philosophical treatises, Puranas etc. Classification of Puranas into Upapuranas and 'Mahat Puranas'. Names of the eighteen 'Mahat Puranas': Brahma-purana, Padma, Brahmanda, Vaisnava, Brahmavaivarta, Mahabhagavata, Bhavisya, Garuda, Lainga, Saiva, Varaha, Markandeya, Skanda, Kaurma, Matsya-purana, Agneya, Vayavya and Sri-bhagavata 112 Names of the 11* The verses containing the list of eighteen 'Mahat Puranas' are given in the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. (I. 25. 20-22 b) as follows: adau brahma-puranam ca padmam brahmandam eva ca / vaisnavam brahma-vaivartam nrsimham ca tatah param // bhavisyam garudam laingam saivam varaham eva ca / markandeyam tatha skandam kaurmam matsyam puranakam // tathagneyam ca vayavyam sri-bhagavatam eva ca / evam astadasaivahuh puranani mahanty uta // It is to be noted that the reading 'nrsimham ca tatah param' in the second line is erroneous, because the 'Narasimha' has been included in the list of Upapuranas given in verses 23-27. (For this list see Volume I, Chapter I, p. 10). As a matter of fact, this erroneous reading of the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. is found replaced by the correct reading 'mahabhagavatam tatha' in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. as well as in all the three Manuscripts of the Brhaddharma-purana preserved in the Dacca University Library. (See Manuscript No. 319, folios 43 b-44 a; Manuscript No. 4199, folios 71 b-72 a; Manuscript No. 4649, fol. 96 a-b). The India Office Manuscript (No. 1313 a) also reads 'magabhagavatam tatha' (see Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1229). The words "sri-bhagavatam eva ca evam astadasaivahuh', occurring in the last two lines, are wanting in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. In the Dacca University Manuscripts of the Brhaddharma-purana the following variations in readings are found in their lists of 'Mahat Puranas': 'lingam' (for 'laingam' in line 3) in Manuscript No. 319; 'skandam' (for 'skandam' in line 4) in Manuscript No. 319; 'matsyam puranakam' (in line 4) in Manuscript No. 319 and 'matsya-puranakam' in Manuscripts Nos. 4199 and 4649; "mahamate' (for 'mahanty uta' in line 6) in Manuscript No. 4199.

410 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS eighteen Upapuranas¹¹³ as well as of 'other Samhitas such as Marica, Kapila etc. which are said to be equally authoritative in all matters concerning dharma'. Praise of Valmiki's Ramayana as the first 'Mahakavya' and as the source of all Kavyas as well as of the Itihasa, Puranas and Samhitas in which dharma has been dealt with. Vyasa's composition of the Mahabharata by taking the Ramayana as the model. Brahma's creation of grammars and the metres such as Jagati, Anustubh etc. Origin of Sarasvati, who is said to be richly adorned with various kinds of ornaments and to have a white complexion, three eyes, and four hands having sudha (nectar), vidya (book), mudra and aksa-guna in them.114 Brahma's advice to Sarasvati to live in his four mouths as well as in those of poets. Sarasvati's taking her residence in the mouth of Valmiki as soon as the latter was overpowered with grief at the sight of the sad plight of a female bird whose male mate was killed by a fowler. Valmiki's utterance of a sloka, and his composition, in the Treta-yuga, of the 'Mahakavya' called Ramayana at Brahma's advice. Brahma's praise of poets as creators. 115 Chapter 26. Valmiki's Ramayana of seven Kandas-a code of the duties of the four castes and stages of life (varna- srama-dharma). Praise of the study of the entire Ramayana or its different parts on different occasions (including the Saradiya-mahapuja) and in different months. Names of all the Kandas of the Ramayana, except that of the second. Chapter 27.-Brahma requested Valmiki to compose the Mahabharata, but the latter refused to do so saying that 113 For the names see Volume I, Chapter I, p. 10. 114 See verses 39 b-40 tatah sarasvati jata sukla-varnaksaratmika / nanalamkara-bhusadhya trinetra sasi-maulini / caturbhuja sudha-vidya-mudraksaguna-dharini // 115 Verses 81-83 kavir brahma kavir visnuh kavir eva svayam sivah / kavir vai dharma-vakta ca kavih sarva-rasaikavit // na kaver varnanam mithya kavih srstikarah parah / sarvopary eva pasyanti kavayo 'nye na caiva hi // kavinam vasaga deva indr-opendra-yamadayah / kavinam vasaga martyah kavayo deva-gocarah //

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 411 the Mahabharata and the Puranas and Upapuranas would be composed in the Dvapara-yuga by Vyasa, to whom he would give the seed of poetry. Brahma mentioned the Ramayana as consisting of seven Kandas and 25000 slokas, and wished to know who, among the sages present in his assembly, was able to compose the Mahabharata and the Puranic works. Narada mentioned the name of Vyasa, who, he said, was capable of doing this work. The other sages protested against Narada's selection, and claimed to be authors of the Puranas. Brahma, therefore, referred the sages to Janaka for decision of their dispute. Chapter 28. Janaka tested the capacities of the sages by asking them to describe the glory of the name of Bhagavat (god) and decided that none but Vyasa should compose the Mahabharata. He narrated to them what Valmiki had already said to Brahma regarding the composition of the Mahabharata and the thirty-six Puranic works and advised them to have Valmiki's opinion on this point. Chapter 29.-The sages met Valmiki on the bank of the Tamasa, narrated to him what Narada and Janaka had said to them regarding their point of dispute, and requested him to make all of them poets. Valmiki praised Narayana as the highest god and said that it was Narayana who created Vyasa and destined him to become the author of the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Valmiki added that Veda-vyasa would write the Mahabharata first of all, then Parasara would become the author of the Visnu-purana, Vyasa would then write the Mahapuranas, and Vyasa and some other sages would compose the Upapuranas, that all the slokas of all the Puranas and Upapuranas would be composed by Vyasa, that the other sages would copy, reproduce or explain these verses, and that, of the twenty sages, viz., Manu, Atri and others, 11 some were to write Dharmasastras, some were to 110 Verses 24-25- manv-atri-visnu-harita-yajnavalky-osano-'ngirah / yamapastamba-samvartah katyayana-brhaspati // parasara-vyasa-samkha-likhita daksa-gautamau / satatapo vasisthas ca dharma-sastra-prayojakah // These two verses are the same as Yajnavalkya-smrti I. 4-5.

412 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS reproduce them, and some were to elucidate them, and the rest were to write different kinds of sastras according to their own choice. Valmiki then sent these sages off by saying that he would impart the seed of poetry to Vyasa, so that they might become poets by Vyasa's favour. Chapter 30.-Being requested by Vyasa to speak on the nature of the Mahabharata and the benefits of studying and possessing it, Valmiki referred to the origin and duties of the four castes as well as to his versification of the Ramayana which Brahma, after receiving it from Narayana, had given to Valmiki. He then advised Vyasa to compose the Mahabharata on the model of the Ramayana, praised the possession and study of the Mahabharata, enunciated the Mahabharata-kavaca (armour in the form of the Mahabharata), and assigned the Sri-bhagavata and the Brhaddharma-purana to the highest position among the Mahapuranas and Upapuranas respectively.17 Valmiki requested Vyasa to write the Puranas also. Vyasa agreed and read the Ramayana with Valmiki. The Mahabharata and the Puranas appeared in forms before Valmiki and bowed down to him. Vyasa saw these and then went to Vadarikasrama with the sages. Madhya-khanda In this Khanda Vyasa reports to Javali what Suka said to his pupil Jaimini. Its contents are as follows: Chapter 1.-Origin of Brahma, Visnu and Siva from Supreme Brahma when connected with Prakrti of three gunas, viz., sattva, rajas and tamas. Prakrti (also called Bhagavati) tested the force of penance of these three gods. by turning herself into a dead body. Siva and Prakrti's assumption of the forms of a linga and a triangular yoni respectively for the sake of creation. Prakrti's assurance to Brahma and Visnu to be born as Ganga, Durga, Savitri, Laksmi and Sarasvati. 217 mahapuranesu mune sribhagavatam uttamam / brhaddharma-puranam ca puranesv itaresu ca || Verses 49 b-50 a.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 413 Chapter 2.-Brahma's residence in the great lotus issuing from Visnu's navel, and his creation of the elements as well as of the bodies, in which Visnu, having egoism under the influence of Prakrti, dwelt as creatures. Classification of Prakrti into Vidya and Avidya, the former consisting of Ganga and others. Brahma's creation of the ten mind-born sons, viz., Vasistha, Atri, Daksa and others. Origin of Satarupa and Svayambhuva Manu from the two parts of Brahma's body, and of Kandarpa from Brahma's heart (hrt). Descendants of Svayambhuva Manu and Satarupa who took to sexual intercourse for multiplication of creation. Daksa's descendants, of whom Sati was given in marriage to Samkara. Descendants of Daksa's daughters. Brahma's passion for his mind-born daughter Samdhya, and his rage against Cupid. Origin of the dreadful Maharudra from Brahma's rage. Division of this Maharudra into eleven Rudras. Daksa's pacification of these Rudras by means of his Yogic power. Chapter 3. Being asked by Daksa to choose her husband from among the gods present, Sati was disappointed at not finding Siva there. So, she placed the garland on the ground by pronouncing the mantra 'namah sivaya'. Siva suddenly appeared and accepted the garland. Daksa got enraged at Sati's conduct and denounced Siva against Dadhici's protest. Chapter 4. Siva's appearance in Daksa's house in the form of an old beggar and denouncement of Siva. Story of the transformation of Nilakuntala (a female attendant of Sati) into Siva's bull. Siva's boon to Nandin (a logician and attendant of Daksa) to become his own constant attendant. Chapter 5.-Siva's escape with Sati through the sky. Daksa's lament for Sati's bad choice of husband. Dadhici's praise of Siva. Daksa explained why he looked down upon Siva. Chapter 6.-Hearing from Narada that Siva would create disturbance in his city, Daksa determined to prevent Siva, made arrangements for the performance of a sacrifice,

414 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS and invited all the gods and goddesses except Siva and Sati. Though uninvited, Sati wanted to attend the sacrifice, but Siva tried to prevent her by referring to Daksa's attitude towards him.118 Consequently, with a view to showing her own power of destroying Daksa's sacrifice Sati took the form of Syama (also called Mahakali) who had four hands, a dark complexion, shining eyes, heaving breasts and dishevelled locks, and was young and naked. Siva got frightened and tried to escape. Sati assumed ten forms called Mahavidyas in order to surround Siva. Sati then narrated the story of the origin of Brahma, Visnu and Siva and explained her true self as the Mula-prakrti to the confounded Siva. She named these ten Mahavidyas as Kali, Tara, Sodasi, Bhuvanesvari, Bhairavi, Chinna-masta, Sundari, Vagalamukhi, Dhumavati and Matangi,119 and said that these Mahavidyas confer on their devotees final release as well as other desires such as the power of marana, uccatana, ksobhana, mohana, dravana, jrmbhana and stambhana. She then asked Siva to speak out mantras, tantras, kavacas etc. for the worship of her own different forms (viz., Kali, Tara, etc.). She added that the Agama and the Veda were her two splendid hands, with which she supported the three worlds. Chapter 7.-After reassuming her previous form, Sati came to Daksa's house where her mother received her with great affection and narrated to her a dream in which she had seen some goblins killing Daksa and Sati saving him by assuming the form of Syama. Sati then went to the place of sacrifice and urged her father to invite Siva. Daksa refused to do so and reproached Sati. He decried Siva and called him 'vasta' (he-goat). Consequently, Daksa had the face and voice of a he-goat through Sati's curse. Sati then went to the Himalayas and quitted her body. Chapter 8.-Hearing from Narada about Sati's death, Siva assumed the extremely dreadful form of Maharudra, went to Daksa's sacrificial pandal, and asked for Sati. Being 118 For an idea of the behaviour which a son-in-law expects in his father-in-law's house, see verses 24-32. 11 Verses 125-126.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 415 refused and insulted by Daksa Siva destroyed the sacrifice with the help of the eleven Rudras living in Daksa's house as well as of Virabhadra born from Siva's sighs. Being pleased with the devotion of Daksa's wife Prasuti, Siva revived Daksa, to whose headless body the head of a he-goat was already set by Nandin. Chapter 9.-Daksa pleased Siva with a long eulogy, in which he called himself 'pasu' and styled Siva Kali-pati, Nandin, Kalagnirudratman, Konka-venkatavasaka Being favoured by Siva, he completed the sacrifice by allotting two shares of the sacrificial offerings to Siva and Sati in accordance with the instructions of Brahma and Visnu who said, "Kali and Siva-these two are regarded as being composed of all the gods. People should not worship any other [god], after these two have been worshipped. Hence one should worship these two at the end, after worshipping all other gods.. '120 Chapter 10. Daksa, Prasuti and Siva lamented for Sati (also called Kali). After proceeding northward Siva found Sati's dark body lying uncovered on its face, took it up on his head, and began his tandava dance, in great joy. Finding the whole world jeopardised by Siva's dance, Visnu, with his Sudarsana disc, cut Sati's body into pieces, which fell in different places and created siddha-pithas. "The best tirtha (tirtha-cudamani) arose at the place where [Sati's] female organ fell. That [tirtha] is situated on the bank of the [river called] Brahmanada and is a place of great yogapractice. An account of this [place] can be known from the Kali-purana. None but Visnu knows its glory."121 When Siva felt lighter at the removal of Sati's body, Narada approached him, informed him how and why Visnu cut Sati's body into pieces, and pointed out to him 'the maha- 120 Verses 51 b-54. 121 Verses 37-38 tirtha-cudamanis tatra yatra yonih papata ha / tire brahmanadakhyasya mahayoga-sthalam hi tat // kalipurane vijneyam mune vivaranam tatah / mahatmyam tasya desasya visnur janati naparah //

416 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS pithas such as Kamarupa etc.' which were created by the fall of Sati's limbs. At the sight of Sati's female organ at Kamarupa Siva turned himself into a mountain and supported it. He also resorted, in the forms of lingas, to those places where Sati's limbs fell. Narada then requested Siva to remain at Kamarupa, and went to find out Sati. Brahma, Indra and other gods went to Visnu and eulogised him. They as well as Visnu then came to see Siva. Chapter 11. Brahma and Visnu met Siva at Kamarupa and consoled him. They described themselves as well as Siva as Paramatman and Sati as Mula-prakrti, and said that it was Mula-prakrti who vested them (Brahma, Visnu and Siva) with gunas and that Sati resorted to Siva in her fullness and to the other two in parts. Then, in order to find Sati at 'the mahapitha named Kamarupa' without delay, Brahma, Visnu and Siva eulogised Sati as 'cid-rupini', 'paramasuksmatara' etc. Consequently, Sati appeared before them first in a thousand enchanting female forms and then in one single body and cursed Brahma to be subject to death again and again, Visnu to remain asleep continually for four months every year, and Siva to become poor and fond of cemeteries. Sati again granted boons to Brahma to become a creator, and to Visnu to establish the varnasrama-dharma and to be incarnate as Brahmacarin (during the Krta-yuga), Narada (for writing many Tantras), Varaha (for killing Hiranyaksa), Nara-Narayana, Kapila (for the promulgation of Samkhya-yoga), Dattatreya, Yajna (son of Ruci and Krti), Rsabha, Prthu, Saphara (for saving the Vedas), Kurma, Dhanvantari (for preaching Ayurveda), Narasimha, Rama (for killing Ravana and Kumbhakarna), Vamana, Bhargava-rama, Valmiki (for writing the Mahakavya), Vyasa (for writing Puranas etc.), Buddha (for deluding people), and Krsna-and-Rama (for killing Putana, Kamsa and others, for upholding the Govardhana mountain, for fulfilling the desires of the gopis eager for srngara-rasa and for doing many other similar acts, which have been mentioned in the Brhaddharma-p). Next, Sati gave a list of the different names of Krsna, spoke on the unity of Brahma,

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 417 Visnu, Siva and herself, and said that as she dwells in all females, no Sakta, Vaisnava and Saiva should misbehave with them, that Siva would speak out the Tantras and mantras, and that she would again resort to Siva after being reborn to Himalaya as Uma and Ganga. Siva waited for Narada at Kamarupa and practised austerities there. Chapter 12. At mid-day of Vaisakha-sukla-trtiya Sati was reborn as Ganga to Himalaya's wife Mena. This Ganga was seated on a shark (makara) and had three eyes, a white complexion and four hands carrying nectar and a lotus in two of them and assuring the conferment of boon and safety with the other two. 122 She revealed herself to Himalaya in a dream, requested him to hand her over to the gods who would come to take her to heaven, assured him that she was none but Sati reborn in a half and that Sati's other half also would be born to him as a daughter, and advised him to give this second daughter in marriage to Siva. Accordingly, Himalaya gave Ganga to those five gods who came to take her to heaven. As Ganga did not take Mena's permission before going to heaven she was cursed by the latter to be compelled to come down to the earth as a river and to be known as Ganga. Narada informed Siva of the whole matter regarding Ganga and accompanied him to heaven. Chapter 13. Siva met Ganga in heaven and held on his head the garland offered by the latter. Siva explained to the gods why he did so with regard to the garland and promised to hold Ganga always on his head. Ganga then promised to the gods to remain, with her invisible part, in Brahma's kamandalu and then followed Siva to Kailasa with her formal part (murti-bhagena). Chapter 14. After Siva had gone to Kailasa with Ganga on his head, Narada went to Vaikuntha and saw Narayana with Laksmi and Sarasvati at his sides. Narayana (also called Hari, Visnu and Krsna) learnt from Narada all about Ganga but was unable to decide whether he himself should 27 12 Verses 6, 21-23 and 75.

418 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS go to Kailasa to see Siva and Sati or the latter should come to him. Narada suggested that Siva and Sati should come to Vaikuntha. Narayana then requested Narada to sing a song, and, at the latter's request, spoke on the number and classification of nadas (sound) and svara with the mention of their respective places of origin. Narayana further spoke on the names and classification of the ragas and raginis (in which Gaudi is one of the Raginis of 'Kamada' Raga, and the Raga called Gaudaraja is one of the attendants of Gandhara-raga). 123 Thus instructed by Narayana on the 123 According to the Brhaddharma-purana there are six principal Ragas, viz., Kamada, Vasanta, Mallara, Vibhasaka, Gandhara and Dipaka. Each of these Ragas has his wives, servant and maid-servants, as the following table will show :- Name of the principal Raga Names of his wives Mayuri, Totika, Gaudi, Varadi, Vilolika, DhanaI. Kamada. II. Vasanta. sri. Kedari, Kalyani, Sindhura, Suhaya, Asvarudha, Karnati. Names of his wives' maid-servants Name of his own servant Vagisvari, Saradi, Syama, Paraja. Vrndavani, Vaijayanti, Jayanti. Devakeli, Hillola. Syamakeli, Malini, Kamakelika, Sambhavati, Sambara. Cakravaki, Candramukhi, Vilasika, Yamini, Syamaghatika. III. Mallara. Nati, Surahatti, Pahidi, Carurupini, Lila, Jayajayanti. Rasika, IV. Vibhasa. Ramakeli, Lalita, Tarangini, Kodara, Kaumudi, Bhairavi, Sarvari. V. Gandhara. VI. Dipaka. Sri, Rupavati, Gauri, Dhanasi, Gandharvi. Mangala, Uttari, Purvika, Gurjari (v.1. 'Gujjari' in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., and 'Gunjari' in the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 4199 and 4649), Kala-gurjari (v.1. '-gujjari' in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. and '-gunjari' in the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 4199 and 4649), Gondakari, Mala. Nagini, SyamaKisori, Hemabhusana, ghotaka. Kallolini, Bhimanetra. Patamanjari, Manjira, Gaudaraja Mahapadmavati, Velavali (v.1. 'Velavati' in the Dacca University Manuscripts), Bhupali, Gandhini. Dipahasta, Dipavarna, PradipaDipakarna, Pradipika, nabha. Dipaksi, Dipavaktra.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 419 science of music Narada began to sing but marred the Ragas and Raginis and was laughed at by Sarasvati. Narayana then encouraged the confused Narada and showed him the different parts of Vaikuntha. At a certain place Narada found some deformed beings, whom he learned from Narayana to be the Ragas distorted by himself. He then returned to Narayana's assembly hall, and took his seat. Being remembered by Narayana Siva came there with Ganga. Brahma and other gods also attended the meeting. At the request of Narayana Siva first extolled the names of Krsna (i.e. Narayana) as the only means of attaining bliss and then sang Krsna-nama-mahatmya with the Gandhara-raga, which consequently appeared in the assembly by assuming a form. At that very moment a female messenger (dutika) of Krsna came in and began to sing the 'dhruva' (i.e. a line of a song meant for being sung in a chorus) "kesava kamalamukhi-mukha-kamalam etc." (which is concerned with Krsna's sport with his gopika at Vrndavana). So, Siva sang "surucira-hema-latanavalamba etc." When Siva's song charmed all in the assembly and compelled the wife of the Gandhara-raga also to present herself there, the dutika, already mentioned, took the form of Hari's beloved (priya) and began another dhruva "rasikesa kesava he/ rasa-sarasim iva mam upayojaya rasamaya rasam iva he //". Hari was so much moved by the song that he turned into rasa, of which his own self was constituted (raso 'bhud rasa-tadatmyat). Finding that Hari, thus liquefied, flooded Vaikuntha, Brahma touched him with the kamandalu containing Ganga. As a result of this touch, liquefied Hari entered into Ganga and made her watery and sanctifying. Brahma then returned with his kamandalu (containing Ganga) to Brahmaloka; and Siva and other gods repaired to their respective places of residence. Chapter 15.-Bali, grandson of Prahlada, attained supremacy and wrested the kingdom of heaven from Indra. Finding that Aditi began to practise penance for delivering Indra and other gods from the domination of Bali, the Daityas first tried to dissuade her but, being unsuccessful in their

420 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS attempt, set fire to the forest in which Aditi was living. Hari saved Aditi and granted her a boon that he himself would be born to her as Vamana for reinstalling Indra in his former position. As Aditi deemed herself quite incapable of carrying Hari in her womb, the latter encouraged her by saying that he constantly lived in those persons who were devoted to Visnu, Siva, Durga, Bhadrakali and Candika, read the Candi, and possessed various other qualifications which made them Bhagavatas. Chapter 16.-In due course, Visnu was born to Aditi as Vamana having a red complexion. After the ceremony of namakarana¹4 Brhaspati invested Vamana with the sacred thread and taught him Vyakarana, the six systems of philosophy (viz., Vedanta, Mimamsa, Nyaya, Patanjala, Samkhya and Vaisesika), all the Smrtis, Agamas, Nigamas, Puranas and the six Vedangas. [In this chapter Aditi praises the new-born Vamana with a hymn which resembles the Devi-stava of the Candi]. Chapter 17. After taking leave of Brhaspati Vamana went to Bali on the northern bank of the Narmada and begged of him three steps (pada) of land for practising penance there. Bali consented to grant his prayer, but Sukracarya tried to dissuade him by divulging Vamana's identity and mission. Bali was not to be deterred. He called his wife Vindhyavali and offered to Vamana the land wanted by him. Consequently, Vamana raised his foot made of sattva-guna into the sky, but Brahma stopped its progress by pouring on it the water of Ganga residing in his kamandalu. Vamana then placed his third foot on Bali's head and sent him down to the region called Sutala, where Visnu always remained at Bali's gate as Gadadhara. Chapter 18. After sending Bali to the nether world Vamana vanished, but his sattvika foot continued to remain in the sky with Ganga resorting to it. Genealogy of Sagara. Story of the burning of 60,000 sons of Sagara by Kapila, the author of the Samkhya system of philosophy, in whose 124 Among the names of Vamana, Rakta is one.-See verse 44.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 421 hermitage the Nagas tied the sacrificial horse of Sagara. Amsuman and others' unsuccessful attempt to bring Gamga down to the earth for the deliverance of the burnt sons of Sagara. Chapter 19.-Being requested by Bhagiratha, son of Dilipa, to tell him how he could bring Ganga down to the earth, Vasistha identified Ganga with Supreme Brahma and described her as being seated on a shark, wearing ornaments, and having a smiling face, a white complexion, three eyes and four hands, in two of which she carried a lotus and a pitcher of nectar and with the other two she assured the conferment of boon and safety. 125 Vasistha then advised Bhagiratha to go to the Himalayas and practise austerities, and assured him that if he could succeed in his mission, people would worship him after worshipping Ganga. In accordance with this advice Bhagiratha went to the Himalayas and began his austerities. Being alarmed at the sight of Bhagiratha's efforts gods eulogised Siva, and the latter assured them of Bhagiratha's harmlessness. Siva then insisted upon Ganga to be kind enough to fulfil Bhagiratha's wish. Ganga, though unwilling to go to the sinful earth, at last agreed to do so on condition that Siva would hold her on his head when she would come down to the earth. Siva was glad and assured her that any person, who would die in the Ganga, would attain Siva. Chapter 20. Ganga's appearance before Bhagiratha, and the latter's eulogy of Ganga with the mention of her thousand names,126 of which more than 250, occurring at the end, have 125 Verses 11-12- dhyeya ganga sveta-rupa trinetra varada siva / abhaya padma-hasta ca piyusa-ghata-panika // caturbhuja divya-rupa vasanti makare sucau / nanalamkara-bhusadhya sphurat-smera-mukhambuja // 128 These names include the following: Narayani, Durga, Durgama-priya, Durodara, Samkari, Jalesi, Sarasvati, Yamuna, Godavari, Vrksastha, Vrksa-sundari, Varunajyestha, Raghavi, Tantramayi, Siva-ganamrt-odbhava, Mahakali, Mahavidya, Digambari, Padma, Padmavati, Mahausadha-jala, Papa-roga-cikitsika, Vira-sadhana-vasini, Kulavrksa-sthita, Kauli, Kali, Tara, Matamngi, Dhumavati, Chinnamasta, Kamakhya, Ksiragrama-nivasini, Syama, Mahakavya-svarupini, Haridra-nagarastha, Vaidyanatha-priya, Vakresvarapura-sthita, Tulasi-taru-samstha, Bilva-vrksa-nivasa, Asoka, Asoka-vrksa-

422 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS been arranged according to the alphabetical order of their initial letters, viz., to ka to ksa, a to pro, and sram and prah . Praise of reciting this hymn on different occasions, especially after worshipping Ganga according to the method of Durgapuja or in the Agamic method on the Dasahara Tithi in the month of Jyaistha. Ganga's consent to come down to the earth, and her granting of a boon to Bhagiratha that she would be known as Bhagirathi. Her advice to Bhagiratha to worship Siva and to blow a conch-shell by mounting the summit of Sumeru, so that she might follow him. Chapter 21. Bhagiratha went to Sumeru, ascended its summit, and began to blow the conch-shell. Hearing the sound Ganga came out of Visnu's feet and rushed downwards. At Bhagiratha's prayer, Ganga divided herself into four streams, viz., Sita, Bhadra, Vamksu and Alakananda, of which the first three flowed through Bhadrasva, Ketumala and Kuruvarsa respectively, and the fourth rushed towards the south and came out of the mount Meru through a passage made by Indra's elephant Airavata which was terrified by Ganga because it wanted to enjoy her. She then alighted on Siva's head on the Himalayas but lost her way in his matted hair. Being allowed a passage by Siva after full one year, Ganga descended on earth on Jyaistha-sukla-dasami. 127 Chapter 22. On the Himalaya Ganga was divided into seven streams by the sound of the seven conch-shells of seven sages. Ganga collected all these streams into one near Haridvara and rushed towards the south-east. At Prayaga she joined the Yamuna and the Sarasvati and flowed towards the east. By keeping Kasi (Benares) to her left and flowing towards the north there, Ganga again rushed eastward. On the way, being misled to a distance by the sound of Jahnu's conch-shell, Ganga became enraged and intended to wash away Jahnu's hermitage. The sage understood Ganga's motive and drank her up. At last being released through nilaya, Rambha, Dadimi, Rakta-dantika, Samkaracarya-rupini, Samkaracarya-pranata, Samkaracarya-samstuta, Kalika, Javanesvari, Phetkarini, Phantakrtalaya, Bherunda, Sarat-kanya, and Sat-karma-parisevita. 127 Verses 72-73.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 423 his thigh, Ganga became known as Jahnavi and proceeded on her way. Bhagiratha, who untiringly led Ganga, found that his steeds were extremely tired. So, he halted on the way. In the meantime, Padmavati, daughter of Jahnu, wanted to see her sister Jahnavi and sounded a conch-shell. On hearing its sound Ganga advanced to a distance towards the south-east but was stopped by Bhagiratha. Ganga understood her mistake and became angry with Padmavati. As a result of this anger Padmavati turned into a broad river, flowed towards the east, and met the eastern ocean.128 Understanding that the ocean was near, Ganga narrowed herself, took a southerly course, separated herself from the Ganges and the Yamuna, and flowed into the ocean. 129 She then reached the hermitage of Kapila in the nether world, liberated the sons of Sagara and became known as Bhogavati. Praise of Ganga; and the results of listening to the abovementioned story. Chapter 23. In course of time Sati's other half was born to Menaka as Uma. This Uma, who had a complexion like burnished gold, began to practise austerities for having Siva as her husband. Being informed by Narada of Uma's enterprise, Siva saw Uma in the form of a Brahmin celibate (brahmacarin) and began to decry Siva. Next, being earnestly requested by Uma, he praised Siva and was at last known by Uma to be Siva himself. He, then, left her with the assurance that she would have him as her husband. At Narada's advice Himalaya sent Uma to serve Siva, who was again absorbed in meditation. In order to excite passion in Siva's mind Brahma sent Kandarpa, but Siva burnt him to ashes. Siva besmeared his limbs with these ashes and 128 Verse 37 cukrodha padmavatyai sa sa tat-krodhan nadi babhau / sa ca padmavati devi vistirna-salila punah / purva-mukham yayau purvam samudram api samgata // 129 Verses 38-39- ganga tu velam samksipya gantum samupacakrame / babhuva daksina-srotah buddhvabdhi-nikatad iva || ganga-yamunayoh sangam parityǝjya surapaga / rajanam daksinam krtva sambibheda sarit-patim //

424 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS felt attracted towards Uma. Consequently he married her and took her to Meru in the Ilavrta-varsa. From Siva's energy, which was thrown by Fire into the Siva-kanana, was born Karttikeya (also called Guha and Sad-vaktra), who killed the demon Taraka. Siva returned with Uma to Kailasa and spoke out to her the mantras and Tantras of all the gods. Chapter 24.-Glorification of Ganga. Names of the seven holy places which can give final release, viz., Ayodhya (which is the town of Rama and is situated on the tip of Rama's bow), Mathura (which rests on Krsna's Sudarsana disc and is protected by Krsna), Maya (named Kamarupa, which rests on a Siva-linga and is resorted to by Brahma, Visnu and others), Kasi (which rests on Siva's trident), Kanci (which is twofold, viz., Siva-kanci and Visnu-kanci), Avanti (which rests on Hari's lotus and is the same as Sripurusottama situated on the sea-coast), and Dvaravati (which is a town constructed by Krsna in the sea and resting on Krsna's conch-shell named Pancajanya). Praise of Krsna's Ganga as being equal in glory to these seven holy places together. Works (viz., making gifts, acceptance of gifts, telling of tales, etc.) to be avoided on the banks of the Ganga. Extents of the 'tira' (bank), 'garbha' (bed), 'tira-ksetra' and 'garbha-ksetra' of the Ganga. 130 Works to be done on the banks of the Ganga. Chapter 25. Preliminaries (viz., bowing down to the spiritual preceptor and to Ganesa, Visnu, Siva, Durga, Sarasvati, cows, Brahmins, chaste women, Bilva tree, Tulasi plant etc., smelling of Bilva leaves, 131 and so on) to be done by a person starting on a pilgrimage to the Ganga (gamgayatrika). The hymn of Visnu, which is to be cited by the pilgrim when he comes near the Ganga. Praise of residing on the banks of the Ganga. Works to be avoided there. Results of sinful acts done. Sinners who are carried by Gangapisacas and are not allowed to die on the banks of 130 Verses 45-47. 131 Verse 7 b-bilva-patram upaghraya ganga-yatram samacaret /

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 425 the Ganga. Siva's attendants called Ganga-bhairavas, who protect the Ganga from pollution. Chapter 26. High praise of death in the Ganga. Effects of coming in contact with those who live on the banks of the Ganga. Story of a just but impious king named Kakakarna of Kikata, who, after death, was freed by a Gangabhairava from the hands of two Yama-dutas and sent to heaven, because he became sinless by living for some time with a merchant who used to bathe in the Ganga. No distinction of caste with respect to the waters of the Ganga. Chapter 27. Method of worshipping Visnu, Surya, Ganesa, Durga, Laksmi, Sarasvati, Sasthi, Manasa and others in the waters of the Ganga with the offer of different articles and the performance of mudras. Directions regarding the worship of Siva according to the "Tantric' method. Noneatability of the naivedya offered to Siva. Story of Brahma's worship of Siva and his curse to the latter that those who will eat the naivedya offered to Siva, will become dogs. Praise of Siva-worship. Chapter 28. Performance of sraddha with sesamum, Tulasi leaves etc. on the banks of the Ganga. Different kinds of food and work to be avoided before sraddha. Obeisance to be made to Brahmins, cows, Tulasi plants, khanjana birds, red kites (sankha-cilla) etc., if seen on the banks of the Ganga. Results of constructing temples of Durga and Visnu there. Bad effects of leaving the Ganga. Glorification of death in the Ganga by means of a story which states that Brahma, who was willing to learn the glory of Ganga, found Siva serving Ganga at Kailasa and met an eight-faced Brahma, a sixteen-faced Brahma, and four Visnu-like divine beings, of whom one was a rat (unduru) in his previous birth, another a dog, and the remaining four were worms in a dead body lying in the Ganga, and who attained their respective states by dying in this holy river. Chapter 29.-Extent of a Manvantara. The fourteen Manus named as Svayambhuva, Svarocisa, Auttama, Tamasa, Raivata, Caksusa, Sraddhadeva, Savarni, Brahmasavarni, Visnu-savarni, Rudra-savarni, Dharma-savarni,

426 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Veda-savarni and Indra-savarni. Names and extents of the four yugas. Names of kings of the Solar dynasty successively from (Manu) Sraddhadeva to Rama, son of Dasaratha. These names, as given in verses 20-32, are as follows: Sraddhadeva (son of Surya), Iksvaku (whose brothers were Nrga and others), Sasada, Puramjaya, Anenas, Prthu, Visvagandhi, Candra, Yuvanasva, Sravasta, Brhadasva, Kuvalayasva, Drdhasva, Haryasva, Nikumbha, Bahulasva, Krsasva, Syenajit, Yuvanasva, Mandhatr, and Ambarisa (who was sonless); Yauvanasva, Nisadha, Bahuka, Sagara, Asamanjas, Amsumat, Dilipa, Bhagiratha, Bhima, Satya, Dilipa, Raghu, Aja, Dasaratha, and Rama (and his brothers Bharata, Satrughna and Laksmana). Names of kings of the Lunar dynasty down to Krsna. These names have been given in verses 33-60 as follows: Pururavas (son of Budha and daughter's son of Sraddhadeva), Ayus, Rantinara, Viyati, Krti, Nahusa, Yayati, Puru (who had four brothers, of whom Yadu was the most important), Janamejaya, Pracinvat, Manasyu, Carupada, Sudyu, Bahugava, Samyati, Ahamyati, Raudrasva, Rteyu, Rantinara, Sumati, Medhatithi, Dusmanta, Bharata, Vitatha, Manyu, Brhatksatra, Hastin, Ajamidha, Nila, Santi, Susanti, Puruja, Arka, Bharmyasva, Mudgala, Divodasa (whose daughter Ahalya had, from Gautama, a son named Satananda), Mitrayu, Cyavana, Sudasa, Saudasa, Sahadeva, Somaka, Prsata (who was one of the hundred sons of Somaka), Drupada, Dhrstadyumna, and Dhrstaketu (Prsata and his descendants being known as Bharmya Pancalakas); Rksa (another son of Ajamidha), Samvarana, Kuru, Jahnu, Suratha, Viduratha, Sarvabhauma, Jayatsena, Ayavin, Ayutayus, Akrodhana, Atithi, Rksa, Dilipa, and Pratipa, who had three sons Devapi, Santanu and Bahlika, of whom the first left his father's kingdom and went to the forest; Bahlika, Somadatta, and Somadatta's descendants Bhuri, Bhurisravas and Sala (?); Santanu, Vicitravirya (whose uterine brother was Citrangada born of Satyavati and stepbrother Bhisma born of Ganga), Dhrtarastra, Duryodhana

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 427 (and his brothers); Pandu (another son of Vicitravirya) had five sons Yudhisthira and others, of whom the third named Arjuna had the following descendants: Abhimanyu, Pariksit, and Janamejaya. Yadu (another son of Yayati) had the following descendants: Nala, Krtavirya, Arjuna (who had a thousand hands and whose memory leads to the recovery of lost things), Vrsni, Sasabindu, Jyamagha, Babhru, Bhoja, Sumitra, Sini, and Nighna, who had two sons named Satrajit and Prasena and in whose family were born Sura, Vasudeva, and the latter's son Krsna. Chapter 30. Glorification of Siva and Sakti. Story of the birth of Gajanana. In spite of Siva's indifference to the pleasures of conjugal life, Parvati expressed her strong desire for a son. Siva was annoyed, and told Parvati that her son would be averse to marriage. Parvati was sorry. In order to divert Parvati Siva placed a part of her red cloth on her lap out of fun, as if it were a child. Curiously enough, a male child was born of it. As soon as Siva took this child on his lap, its head, being turned towards the north, dropped down to the ground. Siva was perplexed. He was, however, directed by a voice from the air to join to its body the head of one who would be found lying with his head turned towards the north. Siva ordered Nandin accordingly. Nandin brought the head of Indra's elephant Airavata. Siva revived the child by joining it to its body. A pen, a rosary of beads (japa-mala), a tusk, a lotus, a tiger-skin, a sacred thread, and a rat (to serve as a vahana) were given to the child by Sarasvati, Brahma, Indra, Padmavati, Siva, Brhaspati and the Earth respectively. This child was named Lambodara, Ganadhipa, Gajanana, Heramba and Vighnesa. Sages' eulogy of Ganesa with the mention of his fifty names including Ekadanta, Lipisvara, Suklasya, Musikarohin, Vaisnava, Saiva, Panca-pani, Panca-vaktra, Samudra, Varinatha etc. Uttara-Khanda In this Khanda Suta reports to Saunaka and

428 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS others what Vyasa said to Javali on varnasrama-dharma. The contents of this Khanda are as follows. Chapter 1.-Origin of the four castes from Visnu. Two ways of dharma, viz., Agama (i.e. Tattva-marga) and Nigama (i.e. Karma-marga). Attainment of the status of the immediately higher caste by the faithful performance of the duties of the respective castes. Bad effects of doing the duties of the higher castes. The eight qualities of the mind (viz., anasuya, daya, ksanti etc.) to be practised by all. Service to be rendered by the members of lower castes to those of the higher castes. Sudras to be maintained by the higher castes. Surnames for the members of different castes, viz., 'Deva-sarman' for Brahmins, 'Raya' and 'Varman' for Ksatriyas, 'Dhana' (i.e. such words as are indicative of wealth) for Vaisyas, 'Dasa' for Sudras, 'Devi' for women of Brahmin and Ksatriya castes, and 'Dasi' for women of Vaisya and Sudra castes. 132 Respect to be shown to Brahmins by the members of other castes. used by Brahmins in blessing. 133 Rules reverential salutations to males and females. not face his younger brother's wife, son's wife, student's wife, and his own mother-in-law, nor should he use the word 'tvad' with respect to them, touch their body, or give them the remnants of his food. 134 Female relatives who are to be respected like one's mother. (Among these relatives the mother-in-law is given a position higher than that of the mother's sister, maternal uncle's wife, and father's sister). Sanskrit to be about making A male should Chapter 2.-Conduct of Brahmins. Rules about the 132 Verses 23-24- brahmanasya deva-sarma rayo varma ca ksatriye / dhano vaisye tatha sudre dasa-sabdah prayujyate // strisu deviti vipranam ksatriyanam ca kathyate / dasiti vaisya-sudranam kathyate dvija-pumgava // 1**Verse 26 abrahmanah samskrtoktya tu vacam dadyat sukhanvitah, 134 Verses 42-43- kanistha-bhratr-patnyas tu snusayah sisya-yositah / svasrvas ca sammukhibhuyan na kadacid visesatah // tvamkaram amga-sparsam ca bahih-samdarsana-sthitim / ucchista-dapanam caiva nasam kuryat kadacana //

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 429 performance of samdhya and the repetition of gayatri, the form and colour of which should be known from the 'Adityakhya-puranaka'. 135 Performance of pitr-tarpana. Rules to be observed in bathing and in answering the call of nature. Praise of Brahmins (who are called 'gods of the earth' and from whose feet all tirthas are said to have issued). Chapter 3. Duties of kings 136 (viz., protection of subjects; possession of virtues such as truthfulness, benevolence, devotion to Visnu, and readiness to serve Brahmins; possession of a high sense of self-respect; constant hostility; collection of war materials; digging of trenches; appointment of spies for knowing the tendencies of the subjects; deliberations in well-formed councils; possession of the qualifications of Agni, Candra, Yama and others; collection of rents from nonBrahmins; infliction of punishment for different kinds of crimes committed by the members of different castes; administration; consultation of the opinions of Brahmins versed in the Vedas, Agamas and Puranas and of physicians and astrologers and astronomers; formation of the army; appointment of ministers; constant performance of svastyayana and worship of Brahmins; and so on). Chapter 4. Duties of Vaisyas, which include the following: names of commodities in which the Vaisyas may deal; determination of the limits of profit and interest; 137 use of 135 Verse 31 gayatrya varna-rupadi adityakhya-puranake / jneyam tenartham ajnaya gayatrim prajapet krti // 13 The expression 'raja ksatriya ity uktah', used at the very beginning of this chapter, tends to show that to whatever caste a king might belong, he was always regarded as a Ksatriya. 137 Verses 7-10 krinita yena mulyena tasya sodasam amsakam / vikrita-labhyam kuryat tu hy adhike dharma-hani-krt // rnam dattva masi masi datta-sodasa-padakam / grhniyad vrddhim ity evam vinsadau tu prthak prthak // ito'dhikam ced grhniyat tada bhogaya naiti tat / sodhyate tu rnam yatra mase tatradhikam tyajet // brahmanebhya rnam dadyad grhniyan nadhikam tatah / The text of these verses, as given in the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed., is defective. Hence, for the text of these verses we have used the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., most of the readings of which are supported by the Dacca University Manuscripts of the Brhaddharma-purana

430 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS different standards of measurement, viz., drona and adhaka (for measurement by heaping), anguli and hasta (for measurement of length), kudava etc. (for measurement of land), and masa, tamra, tolaka and seraka (for measurement of weight); and so on. w • 138 Duties of Sudras. (-A Sudra is to serve the twice-born but should not read the Puranas or teach the members of the higher castes. He is allowed to hear the Puranas and read that Agama, i.e. Tantric work, which is prescribed to him by his spiritual preceptor. The mantra, to be imparted to a Sudra, must be bereft of svaha and pranava. It is only in times of distress that a Brahmin is allowed to instruct mantras to Sudras and to read out the Puranas to them. "None but a Brahmin should instruct mantra, Tantra and beneficial knowledge to the members of the four castes. So, a Brahmin should give these to a Sudra also". A Brahmin should not give to a Sudra such food as has been dedicated to a deity. A Sudra should drink the water with which the feet of a Brahmin have been washed. He must not commit the mahapatakas. Water, flowers etc., brought by those Sudras who live on food given by Brahmins, may be used by the latter in worship. A Sudra should not call a Brahmin 'grandfather', 'uncle' etc., and vice versa). Rules of purification of the body. Method of acamana (sipping of water) and of painting tilaka marks. (Brahmins are to paint the urdhva-pundra on their forehead). 139 Chapter 5.-Duties of students. Requisites for havisyanna 138 Verses 11-12- dronadhakanguli-hasta-kudavadi tathaiva ca / masa-tolaka-buddhyartham manam kuryat prthak prthak // kuryat tamraih serakam ca trimsata sadbhir eva ca / tadardham tolakam jneyam etena kraya-vikrayau // In the third line the Vanga, ed. reads 'setakam' and not 'serakam'; but the reading 'serakam' is found in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. as well as in all the three Dacca University Manuscripts of the Brhaddharma-purana (Manuscript A, used in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., and Manuscript No. 4649 of the Dacca University spell this word as 'serakam'). 139 Verses 43 b-44- brahmanas cordhva-tilakam asikhantam sada dharet // dviphalam madhya-sunyam tu tilakam mrttikadibhih / bahvos ca hrdaye caiva grivayam parsvayor api / brahmanas tilakany eva kuryad vai sarva-karmasu //

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 431 (for both students and widows). Daily duties of householders, including worship of the nine planets, offer of fodder to cows, selection of food, observance of certain rules about eating, and so on. "One should not eat fish and meat on Amavasya, Paurnamasi, Caturdasi, Astami, Ravi-vara, Bhanu-samkranti, Dvadasi Tithi, and on all the auspicious days (punyaha). One should never take fish, meat, masura, masa, nimba, ginger and oil on Sundays. A Brahmin may eat fish such as Rohita, Sakula, 140 Saphara etc. and also such fish as are white and have scales". 141 "At first rice mixed with ghee, then vegetables, next soup etc., and at last rice mixed with milk should be taken. Salt must not be mixed with milk, nor molasses with sour things". 142 Copper wares should be used under certain restrictions. Chapter 6. Further directions and prohibitions for the householders. Some of these directions and prohibitions are as follows. After taking the mid-day meal a householder is to take rest for a while, and then read or listen to the Puranas. He may see the king in the afternoon. In the evening he should perform sandhya but refrain from certain acts, viz., deliberation on sastras, eating, sleeping, consorting etc. He should sleep on wooden bedsteads and on beds furnished with bed-covers, with his head turned preferably towards the east or towards the south but never towards the north 140 In Bengal the 'Sakula' fish is popularly called 'Saul mach'. 141 Verses 44-46- amavasya-paurnamasi-caturdasy-astamisu ca / ravi-vare tatha bhanu-samkrantyam dvadasi-tithau / punyahesu ca sarvesu matsya-mamsam na bhaksayet // matsyam mamsam masuram ca masam nimbam tathardrakam / tailam ca ravi-varesu na grhnita kadacana || sukla-varnam sasalkam ca matsyam bhunjita brahmanah // The Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. reads 'sapharam sapharadhipam' for the second half of line 6, and this reading seems to be supported by the Dacca University Manuscripts, of which Manuscript No. 319 reads 'sapharam sapharadikam' and Manuscripts Nos. 4199 and 4649 read 'sapharam sapharadhikam'. 142 Verses 48-49 a- adau ghrtannam aharyam vyanjanam sakam aditah / tatah supadi bhunjita ksiranna-bhojanam caret // na ksire lavanam dadyan namlesu gudam eva ca/ The Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. as well as Dacca University Manuscript No. 4199 reads 'ksirantam' for 'ksiranna-' in the second half of the second line.

432 or west. 143 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS He should salute Nandisvara, Padmanabha, Nagadevi and the household deity before sleep at night. He should avoid particular days in cohabiting with his wife, using oil, and taking meat. He should wear his cloth by tucking its hem at his navel.144 Clothes washed by women or washermen must not be worn by him in worshipping deities and in performing sraddha ceremonies etc. He should serve cows daily, and take milk, curd and ghee which are like nectar. In cultivation he should not work his bulls for more than one prahara and a half daily. At the time of starting on a journey he should see cows with calves, curd, white flowers, red kites (sankha-cilla), khanjana birds etc. He should not take food offered by physicians (cikitsaka), Bhiksus, usurers, Pasandas, and non-believers (nastika). He should marry girls having auspicious signs. He may have one or more of the following twelve kinds of sons, viz., aurasa, ksetraja, datta, krtrima, gudhaja, apaviddha, kanina, sahodha, krita, paunarbhava, svayamdatta and saudra (or parasava), of whom the first six are entitled to inherit his property in order of preference, and the rest deserve maintenance only.¹ Except during the Durga-puja in the month of Asvina, he should not utter before others words expressive of male and 143 Verse 6 pracyam disi sirah sastam yamyayam athava dvija / sadaiva svapatah sastam viparitam tu rogadam // Verse 9 bna vottarasira vipra na nagno'pi sayita ha // 145 (The Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. reads the last line as follows: naivottara-sirah supyen na nagno'pi sayita The Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 4199 and 4649 support the readings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed.). 144 Verse 22 aca. paridadhyan naro vastram dasam nabhau prayojayet / 145 For the names and definitions of these sons and their right to inheritance sce verses 68-78. The texts of some of these verses are given below. aurasah ksetrajo dattah krtrimo gudha-sambhavah / apaviddhas ca kaninah sahodhah krita eva ca // paunarbhavah svayamdattah saudro dvadasa putrakah / dayada adimah sat syur laghutvam cottarottaram // kalpyah parikrinataptah panca-varsadhikah krtah / na bhavanti hi te putra bharanarthas tu kevalam // putresy etesu yah putra aurasah pitr-daya-bhak / sesanam anrsamsyartham pradadyat tu prajivanam //

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 433 female generative organs. Even during the Durga-puja he should not utter these words before his mother, daughters or such female disciples as are not initiated to Saktiworship. 146 He must regard his elder brother's wife as his mother and look upon his younger brother's wife and sister's daughter as his own daughters, and must not cohabit with these relatives even unwillingly. If he cohabits with any Mleccha or Yavana woman without being a Sakti-worshipper, he will lose his caste and be an object of curse of gods. 147 A Brahmin should not worship Siva with the offer of wine, fish, meat and his own blood and with human sacrifice in times not prescribed by sastras.148 Chapter 7.-Study of the Candi which contains 700 verses and belongs to the 'Markandeya-purana', as well as of the Gita belonging to the Mahabharata 149 essential to all Brahmins. Duties of forest-hermits (vanaprastha) and wandering mendicants (yati). Praise of the garhasthyasrama as the prop of all. Chapter 8.-Duties of women (stri-dharma).-They are to serve their husbands and remain faithful to them even after their death. They should not forsake their husbands 146 Verses 81-83 bhaga-ling-adi-sabdam ca noccaret para-gocaram / uccared asvine masi mahapuja-dinesu hi // matrrnam ca sutanam ca samipe na kadapi ca / a-sakti-diksitayas ca sisyayah samnidhau na ca || devi hi bhaga-rupaiva bhaga-linga-rasa-priya / tasmat tat-priya-kamyayai tat-pujarhas tada vadet // 147 Verses 89-91- mleccham ca yavanim capi gatva jatya parityajet // kalav etasu samgamya devata-sapam apnuyat / durvahah sakty-anusthanam tatra muhyanti surayah // alanghyam siva-vakyam ca yoga-panthanam uttamam / tasmad yoga-priyam devim bhajan kurvan na dosabhak // 148 Verse 98 viprah sva-raktair madyais ca manusya-balina sivam / narcayen matsya-mamsabhyam kale sastra-nisedhite // The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. as well as Dacca University Manuscript No. 319 of the Brhaddharma-purana wrongly reads 'suraktaih' for 'sva-raktaih'. 140 Verse 2 markandeya-puranastham candi-saptasati-stavam / gita-sastram bharatiyam viprah sarvasramah pathet // 28

434 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 150 under any circumstances nor should they fast or perform any vrata without their permission. "A devoted wife should follow her husband in his death. By doing so she delivers him even from great sins. Women have no work greater than this, because [by virtue of this work] they enjoy pleasures in heaven in company with their husbands for a Manvantara. A wife, who, with her mind absorbed in [the thoughts of] her husband, dies by entering the fire with a favourite thing of his, even if he died long ago, attains the same state".16 Widows must live a highly restricted life and abstain from wearing red clothes, sleeping on bedsteads, and indulging in all other kinds of luxury. Childless widows are called avira. There are two kinds of aviras, viz., adatta and datta. Signs of women which indicate their future widowhood. Chapter 9.-Due worship of the five deities, viz., Ganesa, Surya, Visnu, Durga and Siva, the ten Dikpalas, and the nine planets-essential in all auspicious ceremonies. Description of different kinds of Ganesa-vrata, Suryavrata, and Siva-vrata. [Among the Siva-vratas, there is mention of a Sivotsava 151 which is to be performed outside the village 180 Verses 8-10 mrtam patim canumrtim kuryan nari pativrata / mahadbhyo'pi ca papebhyah patim uttarayet tu sa || natah parataram karma yositam vidyate dvija / yato manvantaram kalam modate patina divi |} patyus cira-mrtasyapi priya-dravyena tanmanah / pravisy-agnim canumrta tathagatim avapnuyat // 151 Verses 39-45 caitre sivotsavam kuryan nrtya-gita-mahotsavaih / snatva tri-samdhyam ratrau ca havisyasi jitendriyah / siva-svarupatam yati siva-priti-karah parah // ksatriyadisu yo martyo deham sampidya bhaktitah / asvamedha-phalam tasya jayate ca pade pade // sarva-karma-parityagi sivotsava-parayanah / bhaktair jagaranam kuryad ratrau nrtya-kutuhalaih // nana-vidhair mahavadyair nrtyais ca vividhair api / nana-vesa-dharair nrtyaih priyate samkarah prabhuh // kim alabhyam bhagavati prasanne nila-lohite / tasmat sarva-prayatnena tosaniyo mahesvarah // sankha-vadyam sankha-toyam varjayec chiva-samnidhau // gramad bahih sivam (v.1. 'imam' in Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed.) sambhor utsavam karayen muda uposya hutva samkrantyam vratam etat samapayet ||

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 435 during the whole month of Caitra and concluded on the Caitra-samkranti with the performance of homa. In this Sivotsava the worshippers are to bathe thrice daily, fast at daytime, take havisyanna at night, live a highly restricted life, and practise various kinds of self-mortification. The devotees of Siva are to pass the nights without sleep, disguise themselves in various ways, sing songs, perform different kinds of dance with the sound of various kinds of high-sounding drums and other musical instruments, and take part in other kinds of merriment. They are not to blow conchshells before Siva or offer to him water with these.] Chapter 10.-Description of Vaisnava vratas, such as Ekadasi-vrata, Dola-yatra (to be performed in Phalgunapaurnamasi), Rathotsava (in the month of Asadha), etc. [During these vratas, which are to be attended with music, dance and other merriments, Krsna is to be worshipped in fire, water, Salagrama-sila or image, and different kinds of food materials are to be offered to him during the different months. For instance, sali rice cooked with mudga and masa, mixed with ghee, and specially scented with leaves of Hingu (Asa foetida) etc., and leaves of Vastuka fried with ghee, are to be offered to Krsna in the month of Pausa along with other things; cakes of masa, and vegetables cooked with canaka and scented with Hingu 152 etc., are to be offered to him in Phalguna; mangoes, having soft stones, are to be offered with sugar in the month of Caitra; ripe mangoes, with milk and sugar, are to be offered in Jyaistha; jackfruits are to be offered in Asadha; palms in Bhadra; and so on. Krsna is to be worshipped with nine kinds of bhakti including dasya and sakhya.] Short description of Durga-puja (in Asvina) and Nagapuja (in Sravana). Relative position of the stars and planets. Worship of planets by planet-worshipping Brahmins (graha-vipra) called Ganakas. Chapter 11.-Hymns to the nine planets, viz., Suryastotra (containing a hundred names of the Sun, such as 148 This and other references to the use of Hingu show that its use for creating an odour in food was very common with the Bengalis,

436 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Rogahan, Ruk-cikitsaka, Siva-pujaka-suprita, Visnu-pujakasupriya, Ganga-snana-priya-prita, Durga-puja-suhrd-vara etc.), Sasi-stotra (containing one hundred and eight names of the Moon, such as Ksudhaha, Nada-janaka, Madana, Hamsa-svamin, Srngara-bhava-karsana, Jaivatrka, Hasyakartr, Jyotih-sastra-pramanaka, Vaidya, Saura-bhanu etc.), Mangala-stava (containing twenty-one names of Mangala), Budha-stotra (containing twenty-one names of Budha), Brhaspati-stotra (containing twenty-seven names of Brhaspati), Sukra-stava (containing twenty-one names of Sukracarya), Sani-stotra (containing fourteen names of Sani), Rahu-stotra (containing eight names of Rahu), and Ketustava (containing nine names of Ketu). Praise of the worship of Sani on every Saturday. 15 Recitation of the above-mentioned hymns is said to give to the reciter all the desired objects including death in the Ganga and the highest position among the jnatis (paternal blood relations). 154 Discussions on week-days, samvatsara, and intercalary month. Chapter 12. Extents of the four yugas, and the condition of dharma and the people in these yugas. Names of the principal deities in these yugas. Story of the origin and spread of envy, old age, diseases, death etc. Praise of Haribhakti as the only remedy for these. Chapter 13.-Genealogy of Vena. Story of Vena's creation of mixed castes (samkara-jati).-Vena, son of Anga, was a tyrannical and impious ruler. He prohibited the practice of varnasrama-dharma by beat of drums. Finding that people were growing impious, some sages approached Vena and requested him not to encourage the spread of immorality and the consequent creation of mixed castes. But Vena was not a man to listen to any good advice. He 183 Verse 69- sani-varesu sampujya sanim surya-sutam narah / labhate vanchitam sarvam graharista-vinasanam // 154 Verses 79 c-80 aanta-kale ca gamgayam maranam dadate dhruvam / duhsvapna-nasanah sarve jnati-srestha-prasadhakah //

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 437 determined to go against the words of the sages. He forced the Brahmins, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras to cohabit with the females belonging to the castes different from their own in the natural as well as in the reverse order, and thus created a large number of mixed castes. He then repeated the same practice with respect to the males and females of these mixed castes and added to their number. The mixed castes, thus created by Vena, were as follows:I. Uttama Samkaras 1. Karana 2. Ambastha 3. Gandhika Vanik 15 4. Kamsakara 5. Sankhakara 6. Ugra 7. Rajaputra 8. Kumbhakara 9. Tantuvaya 158 born of Vaisya father and Sudra mother, -Brahmin " " " " Vaisya " > "3 " "" " " " " ' " " "" "" " "" ' " " "" " " " " , " " Ksatriya " "" " "" , " " " " "" " " , Brahmin ☑ " " w, Ksatriya "3 " 10. Karmakara " " " "" " " "" ' Sudra " " " "" " "" ' 11. Dasa 12. Magadha "" " " " "" " " , " Vaisya " " " " 13. Gopa "3 " "" " " "" " ' 14. Napita " " Ksatriya Sudra 157 " " " 15. Modaka ww " " " " " " , 16. Varajivi Brahmin " "" " " " " ' 17. Suta 168 " " Ksatriya Brahmin " "" " , 18. Malakara " " " "" " ' 19. Tambuli " " Vaisya " " Dvija 15 (i.e. Brahmin) " ' 20. Taulika 100 " " " " " " "" ' 145 The Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. (verse 35) reads 'gandhiko vanik' for 'gandhiko vanik'. The Dacca University Manuscript No. 319 (fol. 150 a) wrongly reads 'gandhivalakah' (which is clearly a mistake for 'gandhiko vanik"). 158 The Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. (Uttara-khanda 13.36, and 14.63) and the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 319 (folios 150 a and 153 a), 4199 (folios 220 b and 224 a), and 4649 (folios 319 b and 325 a) give the name as 'Tantravaya' and not "Tantuvaya". 157 Manuscripts B and D, used in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., wrongly read 'ksatriyac chamkha-kanyayam jatau napita-modakau' for 'ksatriyac chudra-kanyayam etc.' It is to be noted that the Uttama Samkaras are said to have been born of the four principal castes and not of any mixed caste (caturbhya eva varnebhyo jayante te kilottamah-chap. 13, verse 49 a). 158 In the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. (verse 39) the name 'Suta' is found, but in verse 66 of chap. 14 (of the Uttara-khanda) this name is spelt as 'Suta'. So also in the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 319 (fol. 150 a-'Suta', fol. 153 a-'Suta',) 4199 (fol. 220 b-'Suta', fol. 224 b- 'Suta"), and 4649 (fol. 320 a-'Suta' and fol. 325 a-'Suta'). 18 The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. (III. 13. 38 a) and the Dacca University Manuscript No. 319 read 'vaisyat tu sudra-kanyayam,' but the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. and the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 4199 and 4649 read 'vaisyat tu dvija-kanyayam". 1 Both in III. 13. 38 a and 14. 59 b the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. reads 'tailika'; but the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. has 'taulika' in the former and 'tailika' (v. 1. 'taulika' in Manuscript C used in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed.)

438 1. Taksa STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS II. Madhyama Samkaras born of Karana father and Vaisya mother, 2. Rajaka 3. Svarnakara " " " "" " " " " " ' Ambastha " " " "" , 4. Svarna-vanik " " " " " "" 5. Abhira " " Gopa 22 " " " ' 6. Tailakaraka " " ww "" "" "" " , 7. Dhivara " " " " " Sudra 39 8. Saundika " " " " " " "" ' 9. Nata 10. Savaka 11 Malakara " " " " " " " 11. Sekhara " "" " " " Magadha " " " " " ' ww " " , 12. Jalika " " 39 " ww " 1. Grhi (or Grahi)163. III. Antyajas (or Adhama Samkaras) born of Svarnakara father and Vaidya mother, 2. Kudava "" "" 3. Candala¹ Svarna-vanik Sudra " " " " ' Brahmin " " " " " 4. Varuda 146 Abhira " " " " Gopa " > 5. Carmakara " " Taksan " " Vaisya " ' in the latter, whereas the Dacca University Manuscripts read 'tailika' in the former and 'taulika' in the latter. As 'Tailakaraka' is mentioned as one of the Madhyama Samkaras, the reading 'taulika' seems to be the correct one. 201 The Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. names this caste as 'Savaka" (see Uttara-khanda, chap. 13, verse 43). It was most probably the Buddhist Sravakas who formed the 'Savaka' caste among the Hindus. In Mukundarama's Kavikamkana-candi (ed. Dinesh Chandra Sen, Charu Chandra Bandyopadhyay and Hrishikesh Basu), Part I, p. 269, there is mention of a caste named 'Savaka' (v. 1. 'Saraka' in the Indian Press ed., p. 90 and Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed., p. 89). According to Brahmavaivarta-purana I. 10. 121 'Saraka' originated from Jola father and Kuvinda mother (jolat kuvinda-kanyayam sarakah parikirtitah). 1** The list of Antyaja castes, given in Brhaddharma-purana III. 13. 43 b-47 a, does not seem to be exhaustive. The word 'ityadi' occurring in the line 'ityadi ye'ntyajah proktah' (verse 47 b) which immediately follows the list of the Antyaja castes, indicates that at the time of composition of the Brhaddharma-purana the number of the Antyaja castes exceeded eight. (The Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. and the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 4199 and 4649 read 'ityadayo 'ntyajah proktah'). 13 For the reading 'mune grhir ajayata' of the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. (III. 13. 43 b) and the Dacca University Manuscript No. 4199, the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 319 and 4649 read 'mune grahir ajayata'. The caste named 'Grhi' (or 'Grahi') may be the same as the caste mentioned in Mukundarama's Kavikamkana-candi (ed. Dinesh Chandra Sen and others, Part I, p. 272). 164 The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. (verse 44 b) gives the name of this caste as Candala. 165 The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. (verse 45 a) and the Dacca University Manuscript No. 319 read 'vadurah' for 'varugah'.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 439 6. Ghattajivi¹66 7. Dolavahi 168 8. Malla 169 mother born of Rajaka 167 father and Vaisya Tailakara >> " " " "" >> , Dhivara Sudra "" " " dw • These were 'the thirty-six castes with a few additional ones'. 170 Of these, the first twenty had Srotriya Brahmins as their priests, and the last eight (i.e. the Antyaja castes) were 'outside the pale of varnasrama-dharma' (varnasramabahiskrtah). The principle which was followed in classifying the above-mentioned castes, was as follows. The mixed castes, which originated from the four principal castes (viz., Brahmin, Ksatriya, Vaisya and Sudra), were called Uttama Samkaras; those which were created by the Uttama Samkaras on women not belonging to their own castes, were called Madhyama Samkaras; and the remaining mixed castes as well as those which were created by mixed castes only, were 18 The Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. (verse 47 a) reads 'ghantajivi' (v. 1. 'ghattajivi' in Manuscripts B, C and D used in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed.). The Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 319 and 4649 read 'ghadajivi", and Manuscript No. 4199 reads 'ghatajivi". It is probable that 'Ghattajivi' is the same as the modern caste of Bengal. 167 The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. (verse 46 a) and the Dacca University Manuscript No. 319 wrongly read 'dharakat and 'varakat' respectively (for 'rajakat"). 168 Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 4199 (fol. 221 a) and 4649 (fol. 320 b) read 'janavahi' for 'dolavahi'. 1 The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. (verse 47 a) as well as the Dacca University Manuscript No. 319 wrongly reads 'matta-jatih' for 'malla-jatih'. The 'Malla' caste must be the same as the 'Mala' caste, which is mentioned as Antyaja along with 'Candala' in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. (verse 51-sa-candala-maladayah) and the Dacca University Manuscript No. 319 (fol. 150 b-sa-candala-maladayah). The Dacca University Manuscript No. 4199 (fol. 221 a) reads 'sa-candala-muladayah'; and the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. (verse 50 b) and the Dacca University Manuscript No. 4649 read 'sa-candala-manadayah". According to Mukundarama's Kavikankana-candi, Malas lived outside the cities ( mer ad gte afz-Kavikankana-candi, ed. Indian Press Ltd., Allahabad, p. 91; ed. Dinesh Chandra Sen and others, Part I, p. 272). 170 Verse 48 asattrimsaj-jatayas tv ete sadhikah kathitas tava. The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. and the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 4199 and 4649 read 'sadvimsa jatayah' in the corresponding line. That the reading 'sadvimsa jatayah' is wrong, is shown by the fact that in chap. 14 of the Uttara-khanda both the printed editions and all the three Dacca University Manuscripts have a line 'sattrimsaj-jatayah sudra yuyam bhutas tu samkarah' in which there is mention of the 'thirty-six castes'. The reading 'sattrimsajjata-karmani", given in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., is obviously erroneous. The Manuscripts B, C and D, used in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., read 'sattrimsaj-jatayas tv ete'). The word 'sadhikah' (lit. meaning-'with a few more') shows that among the names of the forty mixed castes mentioned in the Brhaddharma-purana there is none which can be taken as a later addition, and that the tradition of 'thirty-six castes' must have originated much earlier than the date of composition of the Brhaddharma-purana

440 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Devala called Adhama Samkaras. 171 "The (Imageworshipper), who was brought by Suparna from Saka-dvipa, became famous as Sakadvipi Brahmin on the surface of the earth. From Devala was born Ganaka as well as Vadaka in a Vaisya (female). From Vena's own limb a son named Mleccha was born. This Mleccha, again, had sons, viz., Pulinda, Pukkasa, Khasa, Yavana, Suhma, Kamboja, Savara, Khara and others, who formed the different classes of Mlecchas."172 Seeing all these, the sages killed Vena with a roar, rubbed both his hands, and brought Prthu and his wife into existence. They placed Prthu on the throne. Chapter 14. Due to the presence of the mixed castes, which were 'adharma-sambhava', 173 Prthu himself could not attain peace of mind, and his subjects began to suffer from scarcity of food. Consequently, in accordance with the advice of Brahmins, Prthu stopped the further multiplication 171 Verses 49-50-caturbhya eva varnebhyo jayante te kilottamah/ tato ye 'sva-samgamena samkarantara-karakah// te cokta madhyama vipra adhamah samkarantaram/ samkarantara-sambhutah sa-candala-maladayah// The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. wrongly reads 'sa-candala-manadayah' for the second half of the fourth line. 17* saka-dvipat suparnena canito yas ca devalah/ sakadvipi dvijah so 'bhud vikhyato dharani-tale// devalad ganako jato vaisyayam vadako 'pi ca/ venasya svangat sambhuto mleccho nama suto varah// pulindah pukhasas caiva khaso vai yavanas tatha/ suhma-kamboja-savarah kharas cetyadayah sutah// mlecchasya sambabhuvus ca mleccha-bhedas ta eva hi// The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. reads the third line as follows: tasmad vai ganako jato homa-puja-parayanah. But this reading is supported neither by the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. nor by any of the Dacca University Manuscripts In the sixth line the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. reads '-kamboja-' (for '-kamboja-') and the Dacca University Manuscript No. 4199 reads '-kambuja-'. 173 Verse 5 a-adharma-sambhavas te vai samkarah prthivi-tale. The facts that the mixed castes are called 'adharma-sambhava' in the above-mentioned line, that the Antyaja castes are called 'varnasrama-bahiskrta' (ityadi ye 'ntyajah prokta varnasrama-bahiskrtah-verse 47 b of chap. 13), that in verses 17 and 22 the members of the mixed castes are called 'vikrtakara' (ugly), and that these members are said to have looked upon Brahma, Visnu and other gods as inferior to themselves (cf. verse 19 c-'brahma-visnvadayo deva nasmatto hy adhikah kvacit', uttered by the members of the mixed castes), tend to indicate that according to the author of the Brhaddharma-purana the above-mentioned mixed castes were mostly non-Aryan in origin and heretical in faith.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 441 of mixed castes, chastised the defiant members of these castes, and asked the Brahmins to determine their 'varna' (caste) 174 and 'vrtti' (profession). The Brahmins styled all the 'thirty-six castes' as Sudras, asked them what professions they would like to adopt according to their own capacity, and told them that they would be classified by names in accordance with their respective professions. 175 The Karanas came forward first of all (adau) 176 and said to the Brahmins, "We are ignorant, belong to no caste (jati-hinah), and are specially devoid of wisdom. People like yourselves are allknowing. [So], make us as we deserve to be."177 The Brahmins found that these Karanas were 'nitijna' and 'vinayacara-sampanna'. So, they classed them as 'Sacchudra' (clean Sudras) 178, asked them to give up 'matsarya', and assigned to them the work of the state as well as that of the scribes. The Brahmins then took up the case of the Ambasthas, who were known as such because of the fact that they created mixed castes (viz., Svarnakara and Svarnavanik) on women belonging to the same caste as that of their 174 The statements that at the request of the people of mixed origin, Prthu asked the Brahmins to determine their castes ("varna'-verses 23-24), that the Brahmins styled the 'thirty-six castes ('jati')' as Sudras (verse 26), and that the Karanas called themselves 'jatihina' (casteless-verse 28), tend to indicate that before the classification of the nonBrahmin population (of Bengal) into 'thirty-six castes', the inhabitants of this province had little sense of caste distinction. Such a state of society was most probably due to the spread of Buddhism. 175 Verse 26 brahmana ucuh- sattrimasaj-jatayah sudra yuyam bhutas tu samkarah/ kah kim karisyate karma sa tad brutam sva-saktitah/ karmanurupa-namano yuyam sarve bhavisyatha// 17 This shows that according to the Brhaddharma-purana it was the Karanas who imbibed Brahmanical influence first of all, and that they commanded the highest respect among the non-Brahmins. 177 Verse 28 karana uvaca- vayam murkha jati-hinah prajna-sunya visesatah/ bhavad-vidhas tu sarvajnah kurudhvam no yathocitan// The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. reads 'bhavad-vidhams tu sarvajnan kurudhavam tu yathocitan' for the second line. 178 Verse 32 esa eva hi sacchudro bhavaty eva na samsayah/ brahmane bhaktimattvam tu devataradhane matih/ amatsaryam susilatvam etat sacchudra-laksanam//

442 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS mother (amba), and who were consequently looked upon as great sinners and despised. 179 The Brahmins gave these Ambasthas 'almost a rebirth' by performing their samskara (ceremony of purification), named them as 'Vaidya', and gave the 'Ayurveda' to them through Nasatya and Dasra, 180 Thus the Ambasthas were made sinless (papa-sunya) and good-looking (caru-rupadhara). 181 The Brahmins asked these Ambasthas (i.e. Vaidyas) to adopt the course of Sudras in their ordinary life, to perform the Vedic rites, to study the 'Ayurveda' only and not any other work such as the Purana etc., and to follow the profession of Vaisyas in the manufacture and distribution of medicines; 183 the Ugras, who were strong and brave, were asked to follow the profession of Ksatriyas; 183 and the Magadhas, who were unwilling to 170 Verses 38-39- brahmana ucuh- ayam anyah samkaro hi venasya vasagah pura/ vaisyam samupasamgamya cakre'nyam api samkaram// tasmad ambastha-namastu samkaro'yam dharapate/ papam eva mahac cakre nindyatvam gatam avyayam// The fourth line (papam eva etc.) is wanting in the Vanga.ed. Manuscripts A and C, used in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., wrongly read 'padam' for 'papam". 180-81 Verses 39-42 a- brahmana ucuhasmabhir asya samskarah kartavyo vipra-janmanah/ yenasau samskrto bhutva punar-jata ivastu ca// vyasa uvaca- ity uktva te dvija-ganah smrtva nasatya-dasrakau/ tayor anugrahad vipra dayavanto dvijatayah// ayurvedam dadau tasmai vaidya-nama ca puskalam/ tenasau papa-sunyo'bhud ambasthah khyati-samyutah|| caru-rupa-dharo bhutva viprajnam sirasakarot// The Dacca University Manuscripts read 'vaidya-nama' and the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. reads 'vaidyanamne' for 'vaidya-nama' in line 5. 10 Verses 44-46 brahmana ucuh- ... cikitsa-kusalo bhutva kusali tistha bhutale/ sudra-dharman samasritya vaidikani karisyasi// ayurvedas tu yo dattas tubhyam ambastha bhusuraih/ tena prasakto naivanyat puranadi vadisyasi// ayurvedat param nanyad yusmakam vakyam arhati/ vaisya-vrttya bhaisajani krtva dasyasi sarvatah// 18 Verse 50 a-bayam ugrabhidho'py astu balavan sahasanvitah/ yuddhe kusalatasyastu ksatra-vrtter mahamate//

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 443 become professional fighters like Ugras, were to work as bards (vandi) to Brahmins and Ksatriyas, to carry their letters to the addressees, and to study the Ksatra-veda (i.e. works on the science of war). 184 The other castes were given the following professions:--Caste Tantuvaya (Gandha-) Vanik Napita Gopa Karmakara Taulika .. Tambuli .. Kumbhakara Kamsakara Profession Manufacture of cloth (vastrasrsti). Sale of scents (gandha-vikraya). Shaving and dressing of hair (ksaura-karma). Writing (likhana). Work of a blacksmith (lauhakarma). Sale of betel-nuts (guvakavikraya). Sale of betels (tambula-vikraya) Manufacture of earthen wares (mrdam silpam). Work connected with copper, bell-metal etc. (tamra-kamsy- adi-karma). Samkhika (i.e. Sankhakara) Manufacture of ornaments from Dasa Suta 185 conch-shells (sankha-bhusa). .. Agriculture (krsi-karma.) Rendering help to Dasas (most probably by manufacturing ploughs and other implements for cultivation. Cf. verse 61 bdase tu krsi-karmani sute tadupayogitam). 184 Verses 50 c-56. 185 The profession of the Sutas show that they were most probably carpenters. It seems that Suta and Taksan formed two distinct sections among the carpenters (Sutradhara caste). Taksan may be the same as the Patita (fallen) Sutradhara caste mentioned in Brahmavaivarta-purana I. 10.

444 Caste Modaka Malakara Svarnakara Kanaka Vanik 186 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS (i.e. Svarna-vannik) .. Profession Preparation of sweetmeats with molasses (guda-karma). Supply of flowers for worship of deities. Manufacture of ornaments with gold and silver (svarna-rupyabhusanadi-nirupana). Testing of the purity of gold and silver. The Brahmins gave works on astronomy and astrology to the Ganakas and made them Graha-vipras. At the prayer of the members of the mixed castes for priests for the performance of 'Vaidika, Smarta and Agamika (i.e. Tantric) rites', the Brahmins said, "We, Srotriya Brahmins, are priests to the [first] twenty castes. The priests of the remaining sixteen castes are the fallen Brahmins, who will attain the same position as their clients and become Brahmins in name only (brahma-bandhu)."187 Thus king Prthu put a stop to the further growth of mixed castes, and the world attained peace and prosperity. [In this chapter there are indications that the members of the non-Brahmin castes were originally non-Aryan, that they had a mixture of Aryan blood in their veins, that they were heretical in faith and had little sense of caste distinction before their classification into the above-mentioned castes, 18 For 'kanako vanik' (Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., verse 68) the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 4199 and 4649 read 'svarnako vanik'; the Dacca University Manuscript No. 319 reads 'kalako vanik'; and the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. has 'kaliko vanik'. Manuscripts 187 vinsatinam tu jatinam purodhah srotriya vayam/ anyesam sodasanam tu purodhah patito dvijah// taj-jati-tulyatam yayad brahma-bandhur bhaved api/ (Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., verses 74-75). The text of these lines, given in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., is supported by all the Dacca University The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. reads these lines as follows: uttamanam tu jatinam ... anyesam caiva jatinam purodhah .......// yayad anyatha-karanad dvija/ ../

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 445 and that it was the Karanas who imbibed Brahmanical influence first of all.] Chapter 15.-Incarnation of Supreme Brahma (i.e. Visnu) as Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha. Mention of Vasudeva's exploits. Praise of gift of gold, cows, food (anna), land and clothes which pleases Krsna. Praise of donation. Chapter 16.-Story of Krsna's birth.-Vasudeva's agreement with Kamsa to hand over to him every child of Devaki immediately after its birth; Kamsa's killing of six children of Devaki; Visnu's eulogy of Devi (Kali) at Kamarupa for saving his own life when he would be born of Devaki; Devi's consent to transfer the seventh child of Devaki into Rohini's womb and to be born of Yasoda; Visnu's entrance into the womb of Devaki, and his birth as Krsna on the Bhadrakrsnastami Tithi; Kamsa's attempt to kill Devi, born of Yasoda but transferred to Devaki; Devi's slipping into the sky, her assumption of a dreadful form, 188 and her threat to Kamsa. [In the above-mentioned eulogy, Devi is described as follows: She is dark-blue like the new cloud, wears a tigerskin which is tied round her waist with a snake, has three eyes and four hands, and holds a khadga (sceptre), a pasa (noose), and a skull. As Mangala-candika she is said to have granted a boon to Kalaketu by assuming the form of a 'godhika", and to have saved, by sitting on a lotus and devouring and vomitting out elephants, a merchant and his son from the rage of king Srisalavahana.] 189 188 Verses 95-96 asta-hasta khadga-carma-sulasi-banna-pasakaih/ parasu-yasti-samyuktair deva-devibhir arcita// ghanta-sankha-dhanur-nadaih sabdayanti diso dasa/ 189 Verse 45 tvam kalaketu-varada cchala-godhikasi ya tvam subha bhavasi mangala-candikakhya/ srisalavahana-nrpad vanijah sasuno raksambuje kari-cayam grasati vamanti/{ For 'raksambuje' (in the second line) the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 4199 and 4649 read 'raksasrje' and the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. reads 'rakse'mbuje'. The above-mentioned verse refers to the stories of Kalaketu and Srimanta Sadagara found in the Candi-mangala-kavyas of Bengal.

446 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Chapter 17.-Merriment at Gokula on the occasion of Krsna's birth. Gopis' blessings on Krsna with paddy, Durva grass etc.; Rama and Krsna's sports and exploits, viz., killing of Baka and other demons, chastisement of the snake Kaliya, stealing of clothes of Gopis, performance of the Rasotsava, upholding of the Govardhana hill, killing of Kamsa and Jarasandha, bringing about the destruction of Kalayavana, and so on. Chapter 18. Names of Krsna's wives, sons and grandsons. Story of the gem called Syamantaka, which was recovered by Krsna from Jambavat. Krsna's friendship with the Pandavas, and his killing of Sisupala, Salva, Paundraka and others. Chapter 19. Description of the state of religion and society in the Kali age. [This chapter contains valuable information regarding the contemporaneous state of religion and society in Bengal. It is said that during the Kali age people would be at daggers drawn, and the Brahmins would scarcely study the Vedas. The Sudras would read the Puranas and explain their meaning. "They would teach the Brahmins grammar and other sastras." The Vedic religion would be eclipsed by the faiths of the Pasandas (pasanda-dharmaih). "The Pasandas would create their own gods by dint of their own intellect, compile sastras in the Prakrit language on the basis of non-sastras and preach their own faiths with a spirit of rivalry." They would forsake Krsna and worship their non-sastric god. These Pasandas and the Yavanas would destroy the varnasrama-dharma. People would become licentious (bhaga-ling-opajivinah), disguise themselves as Vaisnavas, and impart mantras to dishonest people for the sake of money. They themselves would hate the gods and make the honest twice-born people irreverent towards them. 190 "When Krsna would leave the earth, the reviling Bauddhas would establish their own faith which was outside the pale of all religions. There would be serious disagreeThis seems to be a censure on the followers of Madhva.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 447 ment among the Puranas as well as among the different systems of philosophy, and Sarasvati would be weeping out of agony. In order to remove this mental agony of Sarasvati, Siva and Visnu would be incarnate somewhere on earth in families having the surname 'Acarya'. Visnu, being incarnate as an Acarya, 191 would have Sarasvati as his wife, and the Acarya, named Samkara, would become a samnyasin. These two would refute the views of the Buddhists by means of the Nyaya system of philosophy and the latter would suffer great mental agony. After suppressing the Bauddhas, Acarya Samkara himself would write divine stavas and kavacas of deities and become the author of many beneficial philosophical works. By virtue of the 'mrtasamjivani vidya' he would assume different bodies and write excellent books on Kavya, Vyakarana etc. When these two Acaryas would leave this earth, Kali would be predominant and deprive the people of their spirit, and Dharma would decrease day by day."192 "Brahmins would forsake the Vedas and take intoxicants, and the earth would yield scanty crops and shrink day by day." "The Yavanas would become powerful, and the gods would leave this earth which would be crowded only by Mlecchas." Hari would be incarnate as Kalki and exterminate all these Mlecchas. Then the earth would be covered by water, and the Satyayuga would begin again.] Chapter 20. Crimes (such as killing of Brahmins, drinking of wine, etc.) which are called mahapatakas. But a Sudra 191 This perhaps refers to Kumarila-bhatta. 192 Verses 20-29 a- tyakte krsnena bhu-khande bauddhah kecid vidusakah/ sva-matam sthapayisyanti sarva-dharma-bahiskrtam// tada purane sarvasmin darsanesu ca sarvasah/ vibhedesu tada duhkhad rodamana sarasvati// tasya hi duhkha-santyartham sivo visnus ca bhutale/ acaryopadhi-gosthyam tu kutrapy avatarisyatah// visnor acarya-rupasya sa ca bharya bhavisyati/ acaryah samkarakhyo hi krtva samnyasam asramam// ubhau tau bauddha-sanghasya naiyayika-matena ha/ nivarayisyanti balat te marisyanti dahitah// ... The expression 'te marisyanti dahitah' does not seem to refer to religious persecution.

448 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS does not become guilty of mahapataka by drinking wine. Mahapatakas in the case of Sudras (viz., reading of Puranas, non-salutation of Brahmins, sexual intercourse with Brahmin women, and so on). Crimes (viz., plagiarism, misinterpretation of sastras, interpolation of verses into Puranas, and so on) which are equal to the mahapatakas. Spread of sins among the people through conversation, touch of the body, breaths, inter-dining, riding the same vehicle, and sitting on the same seat. Denouncement of association with Yavanas, use (or study) of their language, and taking food from them.193 Praise of the 'Brhaddharma-puranaka' as the best 'Upapurana', just as the 'Srimad-bhagavata' is the best of all 'Mahapuranas'. Chapter 21. Praise of the 'Brhaddharma-purana', which is called a Vaisnava, Saiva and Sakta work 194 and is said to occupy a unique position among the 'Upapuranas just like the 'Srimad-bhagavata' among the 'Mahapuranas'. The above analysis of contents shows how important the Brhaddharma-purana is from various points of view. In this work there are numerous evidences 195 which point to Bengal as the place of its origin. These evidences are as follows: (i) In Brhaddharma-purana III. 13 there is a list of 'thirtysix [mixed] castes with a few additional ones' (sattrimsajjatayah ... sadhikah sadhikah ...) which are all non-Brahmin and include the name of Vaidya; and in Brhaddharma-purana III. 14 these 'thirty-six castes' have been called 'Sudras' 196, and their vocations have been given. In these two chapters the Brahmins also have been divided into two main classes, viz., 13 Verses 14-15- alapad gatra-samsparsan nihsvasat saha-bhojanat/ cka-yanasanabhyam ca papam samkramate nrnam// samsargo yavanas caiva bhasa ca yavani tatha/ sura-tulyam dvayam proktam yavanannam tato 'dhikam// 104 Verse 5 aidam hi vaisnavam sastram saivam saktam tathaiva ca. 198 Some of these evidences were noted by Jogesh Chandra Roy in his short analysis of the Brhaddharma-purana-See Bharatavarsa (a Bengali monthly journal published from Calcutta), XVII, Part ii, 1336-37 Bengali Samvat, pp. 673-81. 106 Verse 26-sattrimsaj-jatayah sudrah

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 449 Srotriya and Patita. It is to be noted that the tradition of 'thirty-six castes' (f ) is very popular in Bengal, 197 that all the castes (including Ganaka), mentioned in Brhaddharma-purana III. 13-14, still exist only in Bengal and follow the same professions as mentioned in the Brhaddharma-purana, that Vaidya, as a caste, is found in no other province than Bengal, and that even at the present day the non-Brahmin castes of Bengal are called Sudras. 198 (ii) Brhaddharma-purana III. 1. 23-24 prescribe the following surnames to be used by the members of the different castes: (a) 'Deva-sarman' for Brahmins, (b) 'Raya' and 'Varman' for Ksatriyas, (c) 'Dhana' (i.e. words indicative of wealth) for Vaisyas, (d) 'Dasa' for Sudras, (e) 'Devi' for females belonging to the Brahmin and Ksatriya castes, and (f) 'Dasi' for females of the Vaisya and Sudra castes. These surnames, especially 'Devi' and 'Dasi', are still used in Bengal. (iii) The Brhaddharma-purana uses the word 'ma' in the sense of 'mother', 199 and the word 'bhagni' in the sense of 'sister' (bhagini). 200 (iv) Some Sanskrit words and verbal roots have been used in the Brhaddharma-purana in such peculiar senses as are found attributed to them in Bengali, viz., (a) the root 'vas' in the sense of 'sitting' 201 and the phrase 'mukhe jagada' for 'mukhena jagada', 202 197 The mention of 'ff' is found in Bharatacandra's Vidyasundara and Mukundarama's Kavikankana-candi (both written in Bengali). ' fare wra' is a very popular saying in Bengal. 108 In Brhaddharma-purana I. 4. 21, only two castes have been mentioned, viz., Brahmin and Sudra. 1 Brhaddharma-purana II. 30. 30 tada sa jivito balah pranam prapya ca tatksanat/ parvatim harsayamasa mameti krtya rodanam// The Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. reads 'mametyavyakta-rodanah' for the second half of the second line. 29 200 Brhaddharma-purana II. 7. 28- atha dakso dadarsainam kalim kamala-locanam/ bhagni-ganasya madhyastham taranam rohinim iva|| 201-02 Brhaddharma-purana I. 3. 75- atither nikatam gatva jijnasor usito'bhavat. II. 14. 66- ityuktas tena harina narado lajjayanvitah/ na jagada mukhe kimciddharina saha cavasat// II. 14. 67- uvasa naradas capi purva-kalpita asane. III. 4. 32- brahmanasyasane sudro na vasec ca kadacana.

450 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS (b) the word 'svikara' in the sense of 'promise', 203 (c) the word 'vilaksana' in the sense of 'sufficient', 204 (d) the word 'ksati' in the sense of 'loss', 205 (e) the word 'dvara' in the sense of 'with' or 'by', 206 (f) the word 'nikata' in the sense of 'to' or 'near³, 207 (g) the word 'he' in place of 'bho', 208 and (h) the word 'parita' used in the sense of 'capable of being done' but without any word ending in the suffix 'tum'. 209 (v) The form of goddess Kali and the method of her worship with 'Malasi'210 songs, as described in BrhadBrhaddh. I. 2. 2-4 a- amithya-vacanam satyam svikara-pratipalanam/ ... evam dvadasadha satyam ... ... ...ll 204 Brhaddharma-purana II. 14. 56-ganad virama devarse krtam ganam vilaksanam. 205 Brhaddharma-purana II. 6. 42-tvam tu gatva ksatim sviyam karisyasi vilaksyate. 206 Brhaddharma-purana I. 10. 49-katham adya para-dvara pankaja-dvayam anaye. 207 Brhaddharma-purana I. 1. 10- aham prapto vadarikasramat/ ... bhavatam nikatam I. 3. 75-atither nikatam gatva jijnasor usito 'bhavat. I. 23. 29-evam tu gopi-bahulyad aneka-caru-vigraham/ sarvabhih sva-sva-nikate purna-rupam ca laksitam// I. 29. 13-sa janite kavya-bijam tasmad gacchata tatra vai / tatas te nikatam prapta vayam sarve maharsayah// I. 30. 60-gangaya nikata-sthalat ... ... II. 6. 88 daksajena sarirena naham te nikatocita. II. 4. 5-tasam samnikatibhuya ... II. 10. 40-naradah sahasa gantum matim tannikate 'karot. II. 10. 59. II. 12. 37. II. 12. 61 II. 13. 23 yah sambhor nikatam gatah. devas te nikatagatah. ... girija sati/ yata brahmadi-nikatam sada sambhoh sthasyami nikate kila. II. 13. 24 sada bhaktimatam capi nikatesu vasamy aham. II. 14. 14-aham gayami nikate taveti yadi manyase. Il II. 14. 57-ganam kurusva cetyukto yo gayati sa mudhadhih/ jijnasor nikate vipra tasya ganam vidhi-ksatam// And so on. *** Brhaddharma-purana I. 29. 29-ity uktas te muni-ganah sananda eva he sakhi/ pranamy-adikavim srilam valmikim te gatas tatah// I. 30. 57-... he sakhi. II. 26. 35--tvam na socasva he rajan 20º Brhaddharma-purana II. 19.1-purvair aparitam karma 210 We have already noted that particular songs about goddess Kali are popularly called 'Malasi gana' ( > Malsi gan ) in Bengal. L

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 451 dharma-purana I. 23, is peculiar to Bengal (and also perhaps to Assam). (vi) The method of the autumnal worship of Durga, as given in Brhaddharma-purana I. 22, is followed in Bengal. It includes certain rites which are peculiar only to Mithila, Bengal and Kamarupa, viz., bodhana of Devi in a Bilva tree on the Asvina-krsna-navami, worship of Devi in the Bilva tree up to the following Sukla-sasthi, special worship of Devi on the Mahastami and Mahanavami Tithis, and the singing of amorous songs containing words denoting male and female organs of generation (i.e. the performance of Savarotsava) on the Vijaya Dasami Tithi. (vii) The method of performing the Rasa-festival on the Karttiki Paurnamasi, as described in Brhaddharma-purana I. 23, is still followed in Bengal. (viii) The Sivotsava, described in Brhaddharma-purana III. 9, is the same as the modern Caitra-puja (also called Cadakpuja or Gajan) which is performed by the Hindu villagers in the month of Caitra in all parts of Bengal. (ix) In the story of the introduction of the custom of observing the Govinda-dvadasi-vrata on Phalguna-sukladvadasi we find Varuna threatening Bhadra-sukla-dvadasi (a deity) thus: "Oh foolish Dvadasi Tithi, don't you know me? Every year I shall flood the whole earth on your day, so that no worship of Hari, the lord of all, becomes possible in you." 211 We know that in Bengal the level of water of annual flood during the rainy season reaches its highest point in the month of Bhadra. 212 Hence in the abovementioned threat of Varuna, there is unmistakable reference to the condition prevailing in Bengal. (x) Among the names of the principal holy places situated on the banks of the Ganga from Gamga-dvara to 211 Brhaddharma-purana I. 23. 49 tithe dvadasi re murkhe kim na janasi mam api/ tvad-dine dharanim sarvam plavaye prativatsaram, yatha tvayi na puja syaddhareh sarvesvarasya hi // 21 See also Brhaddharma-purana II. 24. 45- bhadra-krsna-caturdasyam yavad akramate jalam/ tavad garbham vijaniyat tad-urdhvam tiram ucyate //

452 STUDIES. IN THE UPAPURANAS Ganga-sagara-samgama, mention is made of Prayaga, Varanasi, the confluence of the Ganga with the Padmavati, and Triveni where the Sarasvati and the Yamuna become separate from the Ganga, in the same order as given above. 213 Hence the Padmavati must be identical with the river Padma, and Triveni with Muktaveni near Hughli in Bengal. In Brhaddharma-purana II. 20. 49 the names 'Padma' and 'Padmavati' are mentioned among the thousand names of Ganga. In connection with the description of the course of the Ganga from the Sumeru mountain to the ocean it is said in Brhaddharma-purana II. 22 that after leaving Jahnu's hermitage the Ganga followed the course of the Padmavati to a distance, then took a southerly course, and, after being separated from the Yamuna, met the ocean, and that the Padmavati attained broadness, rushed towards the east, and flowed into the ocean. These references to the Padmavati, Triveni, and the course of the Ganga show how greatly the author of the Brhaddharma-purana tried to identify the river Hughli with the Ganga and to pass the Padma as a sacred river. (xi) In two places 214 of the Brhaddharma-purana the sight of a Sankha-cilla (red kite, popularly called Sankha-cil) is mentioned as auspicous; and this belief exists in Bengal even at the present day. (xii) In Bengal, the use of paddy and Durva grass in blessing on ceremonial occasions has become a custom with women; and this custom has been referred to in BrhadSee Brhaddharma-purana I. 6. 27 ff. 214 Brhaddharma-purana II. 28. 15-16- drstva gamga-tate vipra.. 11 .1 .khanjanam sukam eva ca/ pranamen manasa bhaktya sankhacillam tathaiva ca // Brhaddharma-purana III. 6. 46-47- yatra-kale savatsam ca dhenum drstva sukham vrajet/ 1 Sivam vipram sankhacillam khanjanam sajjanam tatha //

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 453 dharma-purana III. 17,215 wherein gopis are found to bless the new-born Krsna with paddy and Durva grass. (xiii) By way of praising the goddess Kali in Brhaddharma-purana III. 16. 37-45, the author calls her 'subha mangala-candika' and refers to the stories of Kalaketu and Srimanta Sadagara in the verse 'tvam kalaketu-varada cchala-godhikasi etc.' Now, these stories are peculiar to Bengal only and are found to occur elaborately in the Candi-mangala-kavyas of medieval Bengal. So, this reference shows that the author of the Brhaddharma-purana must have been a Bengali, otherwise he could never make such brief, and to non-Bengalis unintelligible, reference to these stories. (xiv) The peculiar stories of Daksa-yajna-dhvamsa, Haragauri-vivaha, Ganesa-janma and Gangotpatti, occurring in the Brhaddharma-purana, are almost the same as those given in the Kavikankana-candi. So, it seems that in versifying these stories the author of the Brhaddharma-purana followed the popular tradition of Bengal. (xv) The influence of Jayadeva's Gita-govinda is clearly discernible on the style, metre and spirit of the song (on Krsna-lila at Vrndavana) which is given in Brhaddharma-purana II. 14. 88 ff. as follows: "dutikovaca -kesava kamala-mukhi-mukha-kamalam kamala-nayana kalayatulam amalam/ kunja-gehe vijane'tivimalam // dhruvah || tam / surucira-hema-latanavalamba taruna-tarum bhagavanjagad-avalambanam avalambitum anukalayati sa tu 218 Verses 4-5- gopyo... dhanya-tandula-durvadya-dadhi-patra-karah subhah // agatya dadrsuh krsnam. Verse 6 sarvas ta dhanya-durvadyair asiso yuyujuh striyah // bhavantam //

454 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS priyovaca - rasikesa kesava he / rasa-sarasim iva mam upayojaya rasamaya rasam iva he // dhruvah || This song itself is Bengali in character. (xvi) Brhaddharma-purana III. 5. 48216 contains direction about the sequence in which different kinds of food are to be eaten; and this sequence is followed in Bengal even at the present day. (xvii) The Brhaddharma-purana contains some of the Sanskrit proverbs which are still very popular in Bengal, viz., (a) namno'sya yavati saktih papa-nirharane hareh/ tavat kartum na saktah syat patakam pataki janah // (Brhaddharma-purana I. 28. 19) which has its parallel in the Bengali saying- ekavara hariname yata papa hare | jivera ki sadhya ache tata papa kare || (b) yasya nasti grhe mata bharya va priyavadini/ aranyam tena gantavyam yatharanyam tatha grham // (Brhaddharma-purana II. 15. 14). (c) avrttih sarva-sastranam bodhad api gariyasi// (Brhaddharma-purana III. 5. 6). (xviii) In Brhaddharma-purana III. 5. 44-46217 Brahmins are allowed to eat particular kinds of fish except on some particular days. It is to be noted that it is only some Nibandha-writers of Bengal (such as Bhavadeva-bhatta, Srinatha Acarya-cudamani and others) who allow the Brahmins to eat fish under certain restrictions. In his Prayascitta-prakarana, pp. 67-68 Bhavedeva has strained every nerve to prove that by eating fish under certain restrictions the Brahmins do not incur sin. (xix) From an examination of the names of the trees, plants and flowers mentioned in the Brhaddharma-purana *1* For this verse see footnote 142 above. *17 For these verses see footnote 141 above.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 455 Jogesh Chandra Roy thinks that the author of this Upapurana lived in the eastern part of the district of Burdwan. 218 (xx) Of the mahapithas created by the fall of the different parts of Sati's body the Brhaddharma-purana (I. 14) mentions only three, viz., Kamarupa, Vakresvara (in the district of Birbhum) and Ujjayini (modern Mangalkot, in the district of Burdwan), of which the last two belong to Western Bengal. (xxi) Almost all the Manuscripts of the Brhaddharma-purana, hitherto discovered, belong to Bengal and are written in Bengali script. (xxii) The peculiar method of composition called 'f', which is so favourite with the vernacular poets of Bengal, 219 is found in Brhaddharma-purana II. 20. 134-171 (in which more than 250 names of Ganga have been arranged according to the alphabetical order of their initial letters, viz., to e, to, and and :. It is to be noted that ka ksa, a am in this arrangement 'a' has been regarded as a separate . The above evidences are perhaps sufficient to show that the author of the Brhaddharma-purana was an inhabitant of Bengal. It is highly probable that his paternal blood-relations lived at Mangalkot in the district of Burdwan, but he migrated from that place to the bank of the Ganga and took his residence somewhere near Triveni in the district of Hughli. In course of naming some holy places in Brhaddharma-purana I. 14 he mentions Ujjayini (modern Mangalkot) and says abruptly that the place, where many of one's paternal blood-relations (jnatayah) live, is the best holy place for him. He then speaks of the duties of a 'jnati' in more than a decade of verses, and, before mentioning the names of the other holy places such as Puskara, Gaya, Vaidyanatha etc., says that the duties of a 'jnati' have been mentioned in connection with Ujjayini.220 He regards the Ganga as the * See Bharatavarsa, XVII, ii (1336-37 Bengali Samvat), p. 676. *1* For instance, see Mukundarama's Kavikamkana-candi (ed. Dinesh Ch. Sen and others), pp. 321-8. *** Brhaddharma-purana I. 14.26 a-prasangat kathitam sakhyau jnati-karyam idam maya.

456 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS best holy place 221 and even as Brahma itself, 222 and looks upon the part of the country lying along the banks of the Ganga as the best of all places. 223 He decries those who do not migrate to the banks of the Ganga 224 and extols one whose paternal home is there. 225 We shall now try to determine the date of composition of the Brhaddharma-purana This work knows the Mahabharata in its present form 226 as well as the Gita belonging to it, 227 indirectly refers to the Vayu-purana as dealing with tirthas, 228 and speaks of (i) Valmiki's Ramayana of seven Kandas, 229 (ii) 'the Purana proclaimed by Matsya' (i.e. the Matsya-purana) as dealing elaborately with the Siva-lingas and holy places at Benares, 280 (iii) 'the 221 Brhaddharma-purana I. 2.34--nasti ganga-samam tirtham........ 22 Ibid., II. 14.101 gana-brahma-bhavam brahma hari-deha-dravakhyakam / ganga-brahma samvrnuyad iti brahma hy upayayat || * Ibid., I. 2.38-deso gangantikah sresthah........ Brhaddharma-purana I. 6.37- evam yatra ca yatraiva ganga-tire dvaye subhe / sivalaya brahma-visnu-brahmananam tathalayah / te'pi tirtha-visesena deva-pithas ca ye punah // 224 Ibid., II. 25.45 agamga-desa-vasi yo bhagna-vaso dvijarsabhah / na gamgam asrayed devim param sa vidhi-vancitah // * Ibid., II. 25.51- paitrki vasatir yasya ganga-tire dvijarsabha / manusya-carmana naddhah sa sivo natra samsayah // The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. reads 'labdhah' for 'naddhah'. ***Brhaddharma-purana I. 25-30. *** Ibid., III. 7.2-3- gita-sastram bharatiyam.. candim gitam. Brhaddharma-purana I. 30.43-pramanam bhagavad-gita. *** Ibid., I. 5.3- tirthani santy asamkhyani.... EMPTY_ONL tesam pradhanyatah praha tirthanam vayur eva hi // *** Ibid., I. 25-30; I. 1.18. For the names of the different Kandas of the Ramayana see Brrhaddh. I. 26. 9-17. *** Brhaddharma-purana I. 6.30-32- tato varanasi nama puri sambhoh satam gateh / maranam durlabham yatra yatra gang-ottarasrava // jale sthale mukti-datri svardhuni manikarnika / yasmin bhagavatah sambhor lingani subahuny uta // bhavanti tani tirthani nama-bhedat prthak prthak / viseso 'syasti vijneyah purane matsya-bhasite //

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 457 Purana named Brahmanda' as containing an account of the holy place named Vakresvara, 231 (iv) the 'Visnu-purana' as spoken out by Parasara, 232 (v) the 'Candi' as containing 700 verses and belonging to the 'Markandeya-purana', 233 (vi) the Aditya-purana as having described the appearance of Gayatri personified, 234 (vii) the Buddha as an incarnation of Visnu, 235 (viii) the great teacher Samkaracarya as having eulogised Ganga (i.e. composed a Ganga-stava), 236 defeated the Bauddhas in debates, and written stavas, kavacas and many poetical works as well as treatises on philosophy, grammar etc., 237 and (ix) the 'Kali-purana' (i.e. the present Kalika-purana) as dealing with that best holy place (i.e. Kamarupa) which is situated on the bank of the Brahmanada These verses refer to chapters 180-185 (on Avimuktaksetra-mahatmya) of the present Matsya-purana 231 Brhaddharma-purana I. 14. 29-30- vakresvara-sthalam caiva sutirtham samudahrtam // yatra papahara nama nadi punya-jala subha / brahmandakhye purane'sya jneyam vivaranam subham // These lines refer to a work named 'Vakresvara-tirtha-mahatmya' which claims to be a part of the Brahmanda-purana (For a Manuscript of this 'Vakresvara-tirtha-mahatmya' claiming to belong to the Brahmanda-purana, see Haraprasad Shastri, V, pp. 696-7, No. 4060 (Manuscript No. 5010). Jogesh Chandra Roy wrongly takes the 'Brahmandakhya Purana, mentioned in the Brhaddharma-purana, to be an Upapurana named Brahmanda. The fact is that some scholar or scholars of Bengal wrote the 'Vakresvara-tirtha-mahatmya' and ascribed it to the Brahmanda-mahapurana for authority. 23 Brhaddharma-purana I. 29.20-tato visnu-puranasya karta bhavi parasarah. In the present Visnu-purana, Parasara is the main speaker. Brhaddharma-purana III. 7.2-3- markandeya-puranastham candi-saptasati-stavam / 34 Ibid., III. 2.31- candim gitam gayatrya varna-rupadi adityakhya-puranake / jneyam ...ll .11 235 Ibid., II. 11.72-tato loka-vimohaya buddhas tvam hi bhavisyasi. *** Ibid., II. 20.129-samkaracarya-pranata samkaracarya-samstuta. 27 Ibid., III. 19. 24-27-- ubhau tau bauddha-sanghasya naiyayika-matena ha / nivarayisyanti balat te marisyanti dahitah // tan nivarya tato bauddhan acaryah samkarah svayam / devatanam stavan divyan kavacani karisyati // darsananam ca subhadan granthan api karisyati / mrta-samjivanim vidyam samasritya punah punah // bhinna-bhinna-sarirais tu kavya-vyakaranadikan / karisyati subhan granthan punyams ca pathatam nrnam //

458 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS and where Sati's female organ fell. 288 It includes the name of the Mahabhagavata in its list of Mahapuranas 239 and must have based some of its stories on those of the latter. 240 Among the standards of measurement of weight it mentions 'seraka' 241 (modern '') which was introduced by the Muhammadans; and in verses 88 ff. of chap. 14 of its Madhyakhanda it clearly betrays the influence of Jayadeva's Gitagovinda. It knows the spread and tyranny of the Yavanas (Muhammadans) in Bengal. 242 Hence the date of this work cannot be placed earlier than 1200 A.D. Again, the Manuscript of the Brhaddharma-purana, preserved at Jammu, was copied in the year 1801 of the Vikrama Era; and Manuscript No. 4649, which is the oldest of the three Manuscripts of this work preserved in the Dacca University, must be at least 250 years old. In his Candika-mangala-kavya, Lala Jayanarayana, a Bengali poet of the eighteenth century, gives the Bengali rendering of the verse 'tvam kalaketu-varada cchala-godhikasi etc.' (Brhaddharma-purana III. 16. 45) and says that this verse 'occurs in Visnu's eulogy of Mahamaya in the Uttara-khanda of the Brhaddharma-purana'248 A Tantric *** Ibid., II. 10. 37-38. For the texts of these verses see footnote 121 above. 30 See footnote 112 above. ** For the stories and verses common to the Mahabhagavata and the Brhaddharmap., see footnotes 642-643 in Chapter I above. 41 Brhaddharma-purana III. 4. 11-13. For these verses see footnote 138 above. *** Ibid., III. 6.89 mleccham ca yavanim capi gatva jatya parityajet. III.19.16-yavanais tais ca pasandaih svadharmo nasayisyate. III.19.43 tatas tyaksyanti vai varna yavanasya balam sada / devas tyaksyanti prthivim mleccha-matra-samavrtam // III.20.15 samsargo yavanas caiva bhasa ca yavani tatha / sura-tulyam dvayam proktam yavanannam tato 'dhikam // In Charu Chandra Bandyopadhyay's Kavikankana-candi (Candi-mangalabodhini), Part I, p. 225 the relevant extract of Lala Jayanarayana's Candika-mangalakavya is given as follows: brhaddhammampuranera uttarakhandete | likha mahamaya - prati visnura stavete || avatirna haiya tumi yasodara garbhete | kamsa chali vindhyavasi have nijagavem || eirupa stava prache vistarakathana | tate eka sloka eirupete likhana || bharatabhumete candi lila prakasiya | kalaketu uddharive godhika haiya ||

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 459 work called Sakti-ratnakara names and utilises the Brhaddharma-purana244 Three verses (which are the same as Brhaddharma-purana III. 20. 14-15, and 5. 54) have been ascribed to the 'Brhaddharma-purana' in a work named Kavya-samgraha 245 which was written by Raja-jivana De Dasa in 1655 Saka during the regime of Nawab Galeb Ali Khan of Dacca. In his Yathartha-manjari, Sritirtha Svamin quotes from the 'Brhaddharma' or 'Brhaddharma-purana' a large number of verses, almost all of which are found in our printed text.248 In the Dacca University Manuscripts Library there is a Manuscript of a work mangalacandika nama kariya prakasa | samvarane karivara karivena grasa || vaniksutake pheli ghora sankatete | uddhara karive nrpa- salavahana hate || See also Sahitya Parisat Patrika, Volume, VII, 1307 Bengali Samvat, pp. 153-154. 244 Theodor Aufrecht, No. 157, p. 101. For another Manuscript of the Sakti-ratnakara see R. L. Mitra, I, pp. 127-8, No. 242. 245 Dacca University Manuscript No. 4321 (dated 1655 Saka), fol. 9 b-Brhaddharmapurane alapad gatra-samsparsan nisvasat saha bhojanat / eka-yanasanabhyam ca papam samkramate nrnam // samsargo yavanas caiva bhasa ca yavani tatha / sura-tulyam dvayam proktam yavanannam tato 'dhikam // sloka-patham puranartham sastrartha-kathanam tatha / ucchista-vadano naiva kuryan mantram na coccaret //iti// 246 Verses quoted from the 'Brhaddharma' or 'Brhaddharma-purana' in Yathartha-manjari (D.U. Manuscript No. 4093), === Brhaddharma-purana III.20.9. II. 15. 58 b, 63 a, 64 a, 70-71, 75 etc. II. 2. 11 a. III. 19. 22-28. fol. 3 a folios 5 b-6 a fol. 26 b fol. 40 a-b fol. 47 a fol. 48 a II. 1. 6 a-b. fol. 61 a II. 11. 10 b. fol. 64 a-b fol. 66 a-b fol. 66 b-67 a fol. 72 a folios 74 a-75 a fol. 78 a fol. 83 b fol. 84 a fol. 84 b And so on. III. 16. 44. 1.4.22 b; 1.8.1 c; 1.7.62 a; 1.9.42, 44-45, 47 and 48 b-49 a; I.10.16-17; II.11.96 a and 97 a; III. 20. 6 b. III.12.19 a and 20; II.16.119. 1.25.18; 1.30.48 b-49 a. II.3.39 a and 41 a; II.5.18 b and 21 b; II.9.51 b-52 a. II.1.38-39, 54 b etc. II.2.11 b-12. II.6.138 b-143. I.25.12 b. III.12.15 b-16, 19-20 and 22 b.

460 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS entitled Siva-puja-krama 247 which claims to be a part of the Brhaddharma-purana These evidences show that the Brhaddharma-purana attained a position of wide recognition by 1600 A.D. So, it must have been written not later than 1450 A.D. Though the Brhaddharma-purana glorifies Visnu and his worship and names many of the holy places situated on the banks of the Ganga, it does not mention Navadvipa, which grew up into an important holy place of the Bengal Vaisnavas after Caitanya. In chap. 15 of its Purva-khanda it speaks of four months, viz., Asadha, Karttika, Magha and Vaisakha, as the best of all and names the principal rites to be performed during these months, but it does not mention the Rasa festival. As a matter of fact, the Rasa festival, though described in chap. 23 of the Purva-khanda and mentioned in chapters 10 and 17 of the Uttara-khanda, is not regarded as important. Further, the Brhaddharma-purana praises Devi (Candi) and her worship and does not distinguish between the Saktas and the Vaisnavas. Hence this work must have preceded Caitanya of Navadvipa. In Brhaddharma-purana III. 3 the Ksatriya kings are advised to have 'darpa' (pride), to collect war materials, and to make all kinds of preparation for self defence; 248 according to Brhaddharma-purana III. 6. 89-90 one, who has sexual intercourse with Mleccha and Yavana women, is to be regarded as an out-cast.; 249 in connection with the description of the nature of the Kali age it is said in Brhaddharma-purana III. 19 that the Yavanas and the Pasandas would destroy the Hindu religion, 250 the four castes would disappear, the Yavanas would become powerful, and the gods would leave the earth finding it 247 Manuscript No. 138 S. It begins as follows: om namah sambhave // dharmapurane siva-puja-kramah // siva-puja-vidhim vipra tad ihaika-manah srnu / etc. Its colophon runs thus: iti brhaddharma-purane vyasa-jaimini-samvade . (the remaining portion of the colophon has become blurred). ** Brhaddharma-purana III. 3.2- darpo virodho niyatam yuddha-samagrya-samgrahah / · parikha-karanam caiva carena raja-darsanam // 249 For the text of these verses see footnote 147 above. 250 Brhaddharma-purana III. 19. 16-yavanais tais ca pasandaih svadharmo nasayisyate.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 461 crowded only by Mlecchas; 251 and in Brhaddharma-purana III. 20. 15 the author says, "Association with the Yavanas and the use of their language-these two have been said to be equivalent to [drinking] wine; [acceptance of] food from the Yavanas is worse than these."252 It is clear that at the time of composition of the Brhaddharma-purana the Muhammadans spread into Bengal but could not bring the whole province under their power, that the insult of defeat at the hands of these aliens was still fresh in the mind of the people, and that there were Hindu monarchs who were expected by the people to drive out these undesirable elements and become the saviours of the Hindus and the Hindu religion. Hence it is highly probable that the Brhaddharma-purana was composed in the latter half of the thirteenth century A.D. Jogesh Chandra Roy thinks that it was composed a little after the thirteenth century.253 We have already seen 254 that chapters 15-21 of the Uttarakhanda of the Vanga, ed. are not spurious. Among the remaining chapters also there is none which seems to have been added later. Hence the above general date of the Brhaddharma-purana can safely be taken to be that of all its chapters. In some cases the subsequent chapters refer to the contents of the previous ones. 255 There are, of course, a few isolated verses which must have been added later. instance, in Brhaddharma-purana II. 9. 30 Suka says, "Prajapati Daksa saluted Siva with devotion by reciting [the following] six verses," but as a matter of fact, the number of verses given is eight, and not six. For A study of the Brhaddharma-purana shows that at the time of composition of this work the position of varnasramadharma became extremely critical in Bengal as a result of the 251 Ibid., III. 19. 43- tatas tyaksyanti vai varna yavanasya balam sada / devas tyaksyanti prthivim mleccha-matra-samavrtam // *** For the text of this verse see footnote 193 above. *** See Bharatavarsa, XVII, Part ii (1336-37 Bengali Samvat), p. 677. *54 See footnote 80 above. 255 For instance, Brhaddharma-purana II. 1.1 refers to the contents of the Purva-khanda; II.2.9 (praktis trividha prokta etc.) refers to II. 1. 56-57; III. 1. 36 (guravah purvam evoktah) refers to I.2.13 ff.; III. 5.1. refers to III.2.2 ff.; and so on.

462 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS wide spread mainly of Tantric Buddhism, 256 Tantric Saivism, 257 and Tantric Saktism, 258 on the one hand, and the tyranny of the Muhammadans, 259 on the other. These Buddhists, Saivas and Saktas, who had great affinities, followed the practice of the Vamas 260 and ignored the rules of varnasrama-dharma.261 Many of Many of them embraced Muhammadanism without any scruple. Moreover, among the different sects of Bengal there was constant quarrel.262 The Muhammadans took advantage of this unfriendly feeling and often got the upper hand in the field of politics as well as religion. Hence the followers of varnasrama-dharma felt the necessity of creating a feeling of religious toleration among the rival sects who were all influenced by Saktism and of bringing about a compromise between the ideas of Brahmanism and Tantricism. In Brhaddharma-purana II. 6, 135-146203 Sati is made to say: "See me, the mother of the world, O all-mighty [Siva], with your divine knowledge, and yourself write sastras for my worship. Speak out the highly effective mantras, stavas and kavacas of my different *** Cf. Brhaddharma-purana III. 19.12-16. 257 Ibid., II. 27.43-tantrikena vidhanena sivam sampujya sadhakah. II.23.62 mahesvarah / jagada mantra-tantrani sarva-daivatakani ca // 1.10.61 pancaksarena mantrena .. (i.e. with the mantra 'namah sivaya'). 258 Ibid., I.23.19 (goddess Kali is to be worshipped in 'mahastami-vidhana' or 'agamika vidhi'); 1.21.58 (Devi is described as 'yantra-rupa); II.20.175 (worship of Ganga on the Dasahara Tithi according to 'durga-puja-vidhana' or 'agamika vidhi'); II.6.135 ff. (for the contents of these verses see below); 1.4.20 (gurus tantras ca mantras ca gopaniyah prayatnatah); 1.4.22 (gurum tantram devatam ca bhedayan narakam vrajet); I.5.70 b (Ganga is addressed as 'bali-mamsa-priye kali matsyasava-sukha-priye'); 1.5.80-81 (Ganga is praised as '... hrim-svarupini/.. .. ista-siddhi-kare sphem sphaum hraum hram ..//); I.19.28 (tatah sita suradhunim natva stutva ca bhaktitah / balibhir matsya-mamsadyair ganga-param tato yayuh //); II.11.62 (dvitiye narado bhutva bahums tantran karisyasi); and so on. 2 Brhaddharma-purana III. 19.16 (yavanaih....svadharmo nasayisyate) and 43 (devas tyaksyanti prthivim mleccha-matra-samavrtam). *** Brhaddharma-purana III. 6.81-83, 89-91 and 98 (for the texts of which, see footnotes 128-130 above); III. 19. 16-kalau nara bhavisyanti bhaga-ling-opajivinah); I. 5.70 b and I. 19. 28 (for which see footnote 258 above). 1 See Brhaddharma-purana III. 19 (especially verses 3, 9-11, 38, 40 and 43). ** Brhaddharma-purana III. 19.5 b (baddha-vaira bhavisyanti paraspara-vadhepsavah), 19 b (devata-dvesakas te vai dvesayisyanti sarvada), and 44 b (paraspara-virodhena te marisyanti sarvasah). *** Some of these lines are the same as Mahabhagavata 8.778.

THE SAKTA UPAPURANAS 463 You are ... forms such as Kali, Tara etc. ... to become the author of the Agama, and Hari himself is to write the Veda. You were intended to become the author of the Agama first of all, and it was afterwards that Hari was engaged to write the Veda. Agama and Veda are my two splendid hands. With these two I support the three worlds. O Dhurjati, one, who violates [the directions of] the Agama and the Veda, falls down from my hands for ever. I am unable to save with my defective hands that person who transgresses one of these two (i.e. Agama and Veda) and follows the other. These are the two difficult but auspicious ways which one should never differentiate. Those, who follow the manners of the Vaisnavas, should preserve the secrecy of my formulae (mantra) and procedures (tantra). Hence, O Sambhu, those who are to initiate others to my worship, should be Sakta-vaisnavas. He alone, and not any other person, is a Sakta who has devotion to Sakti and Visnu. How can one follow the course of a Sakta, if one has no devotion to Visnu ? I am the [presiding] deity of the Vaisnava mantras. So, a worshipper of myself should be the preceptor in matters of initiation to Visnu-worship." According to the Brhaddharma-purana Bhagavata is required to worship Siva, Durga and other deities and to read the Candi 264 regularly. It advocates the unity of Brahma, Visnu, Siva, Durga, Kali and Ganga and censures those who differentiate between them.265 It *** Brhaddharma-purana II.15.61 ff. (.... niratas candi-japa-parayanah | muda gayati yo nityam ..). .. a rudra-visnu-prapujakah/ .... yas candi-pathadurgeti bhadrakaliti vaisnavi candiketi ca / • .. *65 Ibid., II. 11. 96-97 (sivo brahma tatha tvam ca na bhinna vai kadacana (... abhinnanam ca bhedarthi naraki paramo matah /... ...); I. 2. 34 (.... nasti visnu-samah prabhuh / nasti sambhu-samah pujyah . ..); I. 4. 22 (gamga-durgaharisanam bhedakrn naraki yatha); I. 5. 31 a (aham esa sivo visnus tattvenaisam bhida na hi); I. 9. 40-47 (yuvayor yadrsi pritir drsyate hy anupadhika / manye taya pramanena na bhinna-vasati yuvam // yadrsi darsita pritir yuvabhyam natha kesava / manye bharye avam prtham taya pramanena atmiko'nyas tanur mithah // na vam || .. dvesa ekasya sa dvayoh // eka puja dvayor mata // ..); apujaikasya ca dvayoh // ..bhedakrd vam ciram patet // I. 10. 16-17 (sa evaham mahadevah sa evaham janardanah / ubhayor antaram nasti ghatastha-jalayor iva ]] sivad anyah priyo me 'sti bhakto yah aiva-pujakah / sivasy- apujako laksmi na kadapi priyo mama //); and so on.

464 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS says that Visnu constantly dwells in those persons who worship Siva, Visnu, Durga, Bhadrakali and Candika, constantly read the Candi, and possess various other qualifications. 266 It praises those persons who do not forsake their own dharma even under great difficulties. 267 It regards the Ramayana and the Mahabharata as codes of varnasramadharma 268 and tries to popularise their study.2 269 It extols filial devotion, conjugal fidelity, and fraternal affection, so that people may have a happy home and give a united stand before their enemies in times of danger. Though the Brhaddharma-purana preaches the doctrine of unity of gods and calls itself a Vaisnava, Saiva as well as Sakta sastra, 270 it shows decided inclination towards Bhagavata Vaisnavism. It begins with the Gayatri adapted to Visnu, mentions the mantra 'om namo bhagavate vasudevaya' in more places than one, 271 and tries hard to infuse Saktism with Vaisnava ideas. According to this work, the Saktas should be 'vaisnav-acara-sali' and be devoted to both Visnu and Sakti, because one is not entitled to follow the course of a Sakta unless one has devotion to Visnu. Kali is said 2 Ibid., II. 15. 56 ff. 267 Ibid., I. 1. 37 (sa caturi caturi ya dharma-raksakari bhavet / sahasr-opadravair yukto yo na dharmam jahati hi / sa dhira ucyate sadbhir dharmaha tv atmaha matah //); I. 1. 42 (nadharme ramatam buddhih.. ); II. 15. 73 (mahavipatti-yukto'pi yo na dharmam jahati vai / sa vai deva-priyo nityam .... II). 268-269 Ibid., I. 1. 18 (sarvesamm khalu dharmanam karanam pavanam matam / ramayanam //); I. 26. lff. (ramayanam mahakavyam krtam valmikina svayam / tatra rama-caritrasya vyapadesena sarvasah sarve dharmah samuddista varnasrama-vibhagasah // stri-dharma raja-dharmas ca brahma-dharmas ca puskalah / vaisya-dharmah sudra-dharma dharmas ca grhinam tatha // itihasa-svarupena sarve dharma nirupitah // etat pathyam ca bodhyam ca smaraniyam sam icchata / yasya nasti grhe sakhyau kavyam ramayanam subham / smasana-bhumis .); I. 30. 32 (bharate vividha arthah dharma-samcayah //); I. 25. 33-34 a (ramayanam puranani mahabharatam eva ca / manvadi-dharmasastrani dharmarthani sadaiva hi // pathet samabhyaset tani pathayed acared api /). tadvati bharate That an attempt was made in Bengal to popularise the varnasrama-dharma by encouraging the study of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, is also evidenced by Krttivasa who, in his autobiography (atma-vivarana) attached to his Bengali Ramayana, says that he wrote his work for instructing the people ( rajajnaya race gita saptakandagana | loka vujhavara tare krttivasa pandita // - See Krttivasa-viracita Ramayana, Adi-kanda, ed. N. K. Bhattashali, p. 175; also Bhumika, p. 7). 270 Brhaddharma-purana III. 21. 5 a-idam hi vaisnavam sastram saivam saktam tathaiva ca. 371 Ibid., 1.7.52 and 54; I. 30. 41.

THE NON-SECTARIAN UPAPURANAS 465 to be the presiding deity of the Visnu-mantras, and consequently a Sakti-worshipper is entitled to act as a spiritual preceptor in initiating people to Vaisnavism. 272 Devotion to Visnu is reckoned as one of the duties of kings 273 and as the means of escaping the sufferings brought on by the Kali age. 274 The regions called Vaikuntha (of Hari) and Goloka (of Narayana) are placed above Siva-loka, 275 Purusottamaksetra is described as the best place of liberation (moksaksetra), 276 the 'Sri-bhagavata' (i.e. the present Bhagavata-purana) is called the best Mahapurana, 277 and Ganga is said to have attained her sanctity by coming in contact with liquefied Narayana. 278 From the description of Kikata (Magadha) as a 'papa-bhumi '279 and from the repeated mention and praise of Kamarupa as the best holy place 280 it seems that Bengal fully recognised the importance of Kamarupa as a place of Sakti-worship and imbibed from there the spirit of infusing Saktism with Vaisnava ideas in order to bring about a reform in the religious and social outlook of the Hindus. 272 Ibid., 11.6.144-6- sarvesam eva devanam mantra-tantradi-krd bhavan/ tantra-mantras ca me gopya vaisnav-acara-salibhih // tasman mad-diksakah sambho bhaveyuh sakta-vaisnavah / saktau visnau yasya bhaktih sa saktah syan na caparah // 273 Brhaddharma-purana III, 3. 1. 274 Ibid., III. 19. 30. 275 Ibid., I. 9. 2-7. 276 Ibid., I. 14. 32. 277 Ibid., I. 30. 49; III. 20. 20; III. 21. 6. 278 Ibid., II. 14. 101-104. 279 · Ibid., II. 26. 47 (kikate ca .... papa-bhumau..). See also Brhaddharma-purana II. 28. 23-24. 280 Ibid., I. 9. 5 b-6 a (durga-lokah .. yah prthivyam kamarupa iti desottamah sakhi //); I. 11. 40; I. 14. 12-13; I. 15. 20; I. 20. 66-67; I. 14. 33 (varanasi ca kamakhya tirthottamani ca //); II. 10. 37-38; II. 10. 48 (mahapithas ca te bhutah kamarupadayo hara); II. 11. 1, 13 and 105; II. 20. 68 and 136 (Kamakhya, one of the thousand names of Ganga); III. 16.36 (Visnu's eulogy of Devi at Kamarupa for saving the seventh child of Devaki). 30