Chapter 3.3 - The Vishnudharmottara-purana (study)

122 This work [vishnudharmottara-purana], as we have it now, is an encyclopaedic work consisting of three Khandas and dealing not only with various stories, myths and legends but also with varied subjects, viz, cosmology and cosmogony, geography, astronomy and astrology, division of time, pacification of unfavourable planets and stars, omens and portents, genealogies I 2 I A list of these untraceable verses will be given in Appendix II in the final Volume of the present work. 122 The only printed edition of this work is that published by the Venkatesvara Press (Bombay) press, Bombay. Being based on highly insufficient Manuscript material, this edition contains various defects, some of which are as follows: J (a) Besides printing mistakas, it has lacunae in a large number of places. (b) One complete metrical line after Visnudharmottara 1. 81. 4 a is missing, (c) In Visnudharmottara 1. 146 the description of the characteristics of bulls (vrsalaksana) is begun abruptly (from verse 41 b) with the second half of a verse in which the description of bulls called 'samudra' (rsabhah ... samudrakhyah) was given. The missing verses of this incomplete chapter are to be found in Mat, 207. (d) A few lines after Visnudharmottara I. 175. 1 appear to be missing, (e) Visnudharmottara I, chapters, 223 and 225 are incomplete, and chap. 224 is wanting. It may be mentioned here that H. P. Shastri also found chapters 223 and 224 incomplete (trayovimsa-caturvimsadhyayau khanditau) in the Manuscript of the Visnudharmottara described by him in his Notices, II, pp. 164-172.

156 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS (mainly of kings and sages), manners and customs, penances, results of actions, rules about vrata and sraddha, description and praise of various kinds of donations, law and politics, science of war, anatomy, medicine, treatment of diseases of human beings and lower animals, cookery, manufacture of perfumes, horticulture, grammar, lexicography, (f) Though in Visnudharmottara 1. 226. 63 b-64 a Nadayana proposes to mention the names of the 'thirty-two' Matrs created by Narasimha from his own body, he practically names twenty-four Matrs only. Hence a complete verse after Visnudharmottara I. 226, 66 a must have been lost. This verse occurs in the Matsya-purana (179. 69 b-70 a). (g) One complete chapter on abirbudhnya snana is wanting. This chapter is referred to in Visnudharmottara II. 99. 81 b (ahirbudhnyam tatha snanam godam uktam pura tava) and is found quoted, in its entirety, in Caturvarga-cintamani, II. ii. pp. 654-5. For Manuscripts of the Vishudharmottara, sec (i) Haraprasad Shastri, II, pp. 164-172 (No. 190.-In this Manuscript, the work is divided into three Kandas, of which the first two have exactly the same contents as those of the first two Khandas of the printed Visnudharmottara, but the last Kanda ends abruptly with chap. 120 of the third Khanda of the printed edition. Hence this Manuscript does not contain the complete text of the Visnudharmottara) (ii) Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, pp. 305, 308 and 326. (iii) M. A. Stein, Catalogue, p. 214. (This Manuscript has been described as follows: kani trutita-patrani vihaya sampurnam/ navina kasmirika lipih). (iv) Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Adyar Library, Part I, p. 150. (This Manuscript claims to be a part of the Garuda-purana). (v) G. Buhler, pp. vi-vii. (vi) Dacca University Manuscript No. 4669. (This is an incomplete Manuscript of the third 'Kanda' of the Visnudharmottara. It consists of folios 8-259, 261 and two more without number. Of its first seven folios, two are missing and the rest are mutilated. The arrangement of its chapters does not, in all cases, agree with that of the printed edition. It ends with a part of chap. 329 of the third Khanda of the printed edition). (vii) List of Sanskrit, Jaina and Hindi Manuscripts, p. 92. (viii) In his essay on the Visnudharmottara published in Indian Antiquary, Vol. XIX, 1890, pp. 381-410, Bhuler says that he used Manuscripts Nos. 89-91 of the Deccan College Collection of 1875-77. According to Buhler's description, the text of the Visnudharmottara, as preserved in these Manuscripts, consists of three Kandas, of which the first two appear to have the same contents as those of the first two Khandas of the printed edition, but the third 'is much shorter than

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 157 metrics, rhetorics, dramaturgy, dancing, vocal and instrumental music, sculpture, painting, architecture, Vaisnava theology, and so on. As, due to want of space, it is not possible to give a complete summary of the contents of all its chapters, we note below the different topics dealt with in it, with the mention of some of the most striking points. -- 123 Khanda I. Chapter 1. Vajra's ¹³ request to some sages to speak on various kinds of Visnu-dharma' or 'Vaisnava dharma' (duties to Visnu); and the latter's selection of Markandeya to do so. Markandeya's consent to comply with Vajra's request. the other two and contains only 118 Adhyayas'. (See Indian Antiquary, Vol. XIX, 1890, pp. 382-3). (ix) M. Rangacharya, IV. i. pp. 1437-41, Nos. 2111-18. (All these Manuscripts are incomplete, the first three consisting of 27 chapters each. No. 2111 is written in Nandi-nagari and has the colophon: sri-garuda-purane visnudharmottare prathamo 'dhyayah). (x) There is yet another Manuscript of the Visnudharmottara in Bhau Daji's Collection in the Library of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Bombay). This Manuscript is written in Devanagari and was copied in Vikrama era 1925. For Manuscripts of Stotras, Vrata-kathas etc., claiming to belong to the Visnudharmottara, see (i) Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1309, No. 3605 (Aparajita-stotra). (ii) A. B. Keith, Catalogue, II. i, pp. 912 and 913 (Aparajita-stotra); II. ii. p. 1014 (Dvaraka-mahatmya). (iii) Haraprasad Shastri, V. pp. 765-9, Nos. 4101-4 (Aparajita stotra; Vyadhi-prasamanapamarjanaka; and Apamarjana-stotra), and p. 841 (extracts belonging to the Visnudharmottara). (iv) R. L. Mitra, II, p. 16, No. 550 (Dharmaghata-vrata-katha). (v) Chintaharan Chakravarti, p. 115 (Trailokya-vijayaparajita-stotra and Siva-ratri-vrata-katha). (vi) M. A. Stein, Catalogue, p. 214 (Aparajita-stotra). (vii) P.P.S. Sastri, Tanjore Cat., XV, pp. 7173-74, Nos. 10578-81. (viii) Dacca University Manuscripts of the Vamsa-kavaca, Aparajita-stotra, Svapnadhyaya, and Apamarjana-vidhi. (ix) A. Weber, No. 1162 (Apamarjana-stotra). And so on. 123 King Vajra was the son of Aniruddha and the great-grandson of Krsna,

158 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS as Chaps. 2-3.-Description of the origin of the universe as well of Brahma, Rudra and others from Narayana. Account of Visnu's raising of the earth by assuming the form of a Boar. Chaps. 4-5-Description of the nether worlds (viz., Patala, Sutala etc.) and the different regions (viz., Varaha-loka, Kalagnirudra-loka, Visnu-loka, bharloka, bhuvarloka etc.), in which Visnu remains with Laksmi by assuming different forms. In chap. 4, verses 1-4 there is a description of the different measurements of space, viz., trasarenu, liksa, raja-sarsapa, gaura-sarsapa, sarsapa, yava, anguli, sanku, basta, dhanuh, krosa, gavyuti and yojana. Chaps. 6-11. Geography of the earth.-Names and description of its dvipas. Names of its mountains, oceans etc. Position of mount Meru, and the names of the cities (of Indra, Vahni, Yama, Varuna and others) situated round it. Description of Jambu-dvipa, with the mention of the names of its varsas, mountains etc. Description of Bharata-varsa (including Lamka)125 _ the names of the tribes living in its central, eastern, south-eastern, southern, south-western, western, north-western, northern and north-eastern parts; 126 the names of its 124 125 Visnudharmottara I. 8. 16-18. lbid., I. 8. 9 lavanasyottare parsve sagarasya ca daksine/ puri lanka samnivista yasyam vai ravano hatah // 126 Visnudharmottara I. 9. 2-[C pancalah kuravo matsya yaudheyah savatascarah/ kuntayah surasenas ca madhyadesa-janah smrtah// vrsadhvajanjanah pannah suhma magadha-cedayah/ kasayas ca vidchas ca purvasyam kosalas tatha// kalinga-vanga-pundr-anga-vaidarbha mulakas tatba/ vindhyanta-nilayah proktah parva-daksinatah smrtah// pulindasmaka-jimuta-nararastra-nivasinah/ karnataka bhojakata daksinapatha-vasinah// ambastha dravida nagah kambojah strimukhah sakah/ anantavasinas caiva jneya daksina-pascime|| stri-rajyam saindhava mleccha nastikya yavanas tatha/ pascimena ca vijneyah patumanausadhaih saha// mandavyas ca tusaras ca mulikas ca mukhah khasah/ mahakesa mahanasa desas tuttara-pascime||

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 159 seven principal mountains (kula-parvata) as well as of the principal rivers arising from them; the names of those chief rivers 127 which arose from the Himalaya and are regarded as specially sacred. Chaps. 12-22.-Description of Kosala and Ayodhya. Names and accounts of the kings of the Solar dynasty from Iksvaku (son of Vaivasvata Manu) downwards. Story of Sagara, whose sons were burnt to ashes by Kapila, a form of Vasudeva. Story of Bhagiratha's bringing Ganga¹28 down to earth. lainpagas talanagas ca maru gandharajahutah/ himavan-nilaya mleccha hy udicim disam asritali// trigarta-mina-kauluta brahmaputrah satiganah/ abhisaras ca kasmiras codak-purvena kirtitah// 127 The names of these rivers are as follows:-Kausiki, Gandaki, Lohitya, Drsadvati, Mena, Bahuda, Mahanadi, Gomati, Devika, Vitasta, Candrabhaga, Sarayu, Iravati, Vipasa, Satadru, Yamuna and Sarasvati, Of these rivers, the Kausiki is said to be the beloved of Kausika and is described as 'nimnagottama', 'gajendra-bhinna-kula', and 'ganga-tulya ca punyatah'; the Bahuda is said to have restored the severed arm of the sage Likhita; the Devika is identified with the beloved wife of Samkara; the Vitasta is called 'visnu loka-prada' and 'agha-nasini'; the Candrabhaga is described as 'candraloka-prada"; the Iravati is called 'indrebha-sevita-tata" and 'indra-loka-pradayini'; the Vipasa is said to be 'visista-pasa-vicchede knsala'; and the Satadru is described as 'sarya-papanam vipakakarini' and 'vasistha vidruta. For description of all the above-mentioned rivers see Visnudharmottara I. 11. 2-21. In this description, the Sarasvati is called 'sapta-prakara' and is said to consist of seven parts known by seven names, viz., Suprabha (at Puskara), Kataraksi (at Naimisa), Visala (at Gaya), Manasa-hrada (at Kosala), Sarasvati (at Kuruksetra), Ogha-nada (at Ganga-dvara), and Suvenu (on the Himacala). It is to be noted that in these verses the word 'devi' has been used with respect to the following rivers: Devika, Vitasta, Iravati, Satadru and Sarasvati, -- 128 In chap. 19, verses 18 ff. it is said that Ganga, being let out from Siva's matted hair, first entered the Bindu-saras (which had been created by the drops of water of Ganga) and then divided herself into seven streams, of which three (viz., Hladini, Hradini and Plavini) flowed towards the east, three (viz., Sita, Vaktra and Sindhu) rushed towards the west, and one (viz. Ganga) flowed towards the south by following the track shown by Bhagiratha,

160 Digressions: STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS (i) Visnu's killing of the demons Madhu and Kaitabha, who had originated from a drop of Brahma's perspiration.- Chapter 15. (ii) Story of Kuvalayasva, who was named Dhundhumara for killing the aquatic demon Dhundhu (son of Madhu and Kaitabha) with the help of sage Uttanka.- Chapter 16. (iii) Story of Jahnu, king of Kanyakubja, who drank up Ganga, because the latter flooded his sacrificial hall in which preparations were made for the performance of a horse-sacrifice. Jahnu's letting Ganga out through his ear.- Chapter 20. (iv) Story of Vamana (Trivikrama), who chastised Baskali and ushered Ganga into the world. Presence of Ganga in different places in different names and forms. 129 Chaps. 23-71.-Story of Visnu's birth as Bhargava Rama, his attainment of Ksatriya characteristics, and his performance of various exploits, viz., his extermination of the Saimhikeyas as well as of the demons living in the nether world, and his killing of the Ksatriyas including Kartaviryarjuna. Stories of Nahusa's change into a snake; Indra's residence in a lotus-stalk in the Manasa lake for getting rid of Brahma-hatya arising from Vetra-vadha; Visnu's manifestation as Dattatreya; Vasistha's curse on Kartaviryarjuna for burning his forest for pleasing Aditya; birth of Visvamitra, and the cause of his turning a Brahmin; Surya's offer of an umbrella and a pair of shoes to Renuka, wife of Jamadagni; churning of the ocean by gods and demons; Visnu's beheading of Rahu; and Bhargava Rama's meeting with Varuna in the latter's residence. In connection with these stories, portents (utpata) have been dealt with in chap. 37, bad dreams (duhsvapna) in chap. 39, and evil omens (durnimitta) in chap. 46. Chaps. 52-65 constitute a separate section called 'Samkara-gita,' in which Samkara, being requested by Bhargava Rama, glorifies Nara- 129 Ganga is said to sanctify the Daradas, Jahudas, Kasmiras, Nairasas, Abhiras, Kalapa-gramakas, Tamra'iptakas, Vangas, Pundras and others. Chapter 21, verses 17-24.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 161 yana (i.e. Visnu) as Para Brahma and the source of the universe, admits that he himself meditates on Narayana, and then speaks on the following topics: -Visnu's manifestation as Varaha, Narasimha and Vamana; Visnu's various vibhutis; praise of devotion (bhakti) to Visnu; enumeration of actions 130 which please Kesava; results of worshipping Visnu by observing fast on the different days (from Sunday to Saturday) of the week, on different Tithis (from Pratipad to Pancadasi) and under different Naksatras from Krttika to Bharani); worship of Visnu with the due observance of 'panca-kala,' viz., abhigamana-kala, upadana-kala, ijya-kala, svadhyaya-kala and yoga-kala.131 Chaps. 72-73. Varuna's speech to Bhargava Rama on the following topics: Division of time according to saura, candra, savana and naksatra mana; measurement of time-duration of a nimesa, truti, prana, vinadika, nadika, muhurta, ahoratra, paksa, masa, ayana, samvatsara, yuga, kalpa etc.; duration of the day and night of the Pitrs; longevity of Brahma; condition of dharma etc. during the four yugas, especially in the Kali-yuga. Chapter 74. Condition of Bharata-varsa at the end of each yuga; and Visnu's appearance in human forms (such as those of Pramati, Bhimaratha, Vasudeva-and-Arjuna, and Kalkin) for relieving the earth of her burden. This chapter gives us information regarding the literary activity of Valmiki and Vyasa at the ends of Treta and Dvapara respectively. It is said that at the end of the Dvapara-yuga Visnu would be born as Vyasa, divide the original Veda into four, viz., Rg-veda, Sama-veda, Atharvana and Yajur-veda, and write Vakovakya, Purana and Bharata, and that at the end of the Treta-yuga Visnu would be born as Valmiki and write the 'Ramakhyana'. (See verses 22 ff.). Chaps. 75-77.-Condition of the world at the ends of Manvantaras, Kalpas and Mahakalpas. Chaps. 78-79. Entrance of Markandeya and Brahma into the 130 Such as non-giving of Visnu-naivedya or Visnu-nirmalya to non-Vaisnavas; showing respect to all deities and faiths; honouring the Pancaratras; and so on. Chapter 58 131 For details see chapters 61-65, 21

162 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS body of Visnu, and their experience at the close of a Manvantara and a Kalpa respectively. Chapter 80.-Measurement of time beginning from the origin of Brahma. Duration of the periods of reign of Vajra and Pariksit. Chapter 81.-Names of fourteen Manus. Difference between the Manvantaras and Kalpas. of Chaps. 82-105.-On astrology and astronomy.-Different kinds years, and their characteristics and results; names of deities dominating the different seasons, months, planets, stars, tithis and muhurtas; names and description of karanas (viz., bava, balava, kaulava etc.), and the names of their presiding deities; description of hora, kulika-vela and lagna; nature of the influence of planets and stars on different countries under different circumstances; long and detailed description of the method of performing graba-yajna (which consists of prak-tantra and uttara-tantra); relative position of the planets and stars. Chapter 106.-Stories of the birth of Dhruva and the different Planets. 132 Chapter 107.-Brahma's creation of gods, demons, sages, Pitrs and others, as well as of planets, birds, snakes etc. Daksa's descendants (including Sati, who is said to have forsaken her body and been reborn as Uma). Chaps. 108-109.-Dhruva's descendants including Vena¹ and Prthu, whose stories have been given at length. Daksa's rebirth as the son of Pracetas, and his creation by sexual intercourse. Chaps. 110-118.-Descendants of Bhrgu, Angiras, Atri, Visvamitra, Parasara and other sages. Origin of gotras and pravaras. Restriction as regards marriage among them. Digression: Story of Nimi and Vasistha's mutual curse, and the latter's birth as the son of Mitra and Varuna. Chapter 117. Chaps. 119-121.-Descendants of Dharma and Kasyapa. 132 For the peculiar stories of the birth of Bhauma, Budha and Sukra, see verses 34-51 and 54-60. 133 Following the Lokayatikas Vena says: yavaj-jivam sukham jiven nasti mrtyor agocaram/ bhasmibhutasya santasya punar agamanam kutah/./. Visnudharmottara I. 108, 18-19.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 163 Chaps. 122-8.-Story of Krsna's killing of Kalanemi. Visnu's manifestation as Varaha. Birth of Maruts. Creation of Apsarases, viz., Tilottama, Ahalya, Urvasi and others. Chaps. 129-137.-Story of Pururavas and Urvasi.-The latter's origin from Narayana's thighs; Tumburu's curse on her; her love for and residence with Pururavas (of Pratisthana) 134 on certain conditions; Urvasi's departure, and Pururavas's vain enquiry for her to beasts and birds; Narada's request to Urvasi to pass one night with the king; Urvasi's meeting with Pururavas in a lake in Kuruksetra; and so on. [Though based on its Vedic and Puranic versions, this story has innovations and betrays the influence of Kalidasa's Vikramorvasiya.] Cause and praise of performing sraddha on the Amavasya Tithi. ( Chapter 137, verses 29 ff.). Chapter 138.-Names and classification of Pitrs; and the effect of offering sraddha to them. Chapter 139.-The custom of offering sraddha-first introduced on the Varaha-parvata by Visnu in the form of Varaha in the Vaivasvata Manvantara. Chaps. 140-144.-Performance of sraddha.-Detailed description of its procedure; persons entitled to offer sraddha under different circumstances; selection of proper place; 135 different kinds of articles (including meat of particular animals) to be offered to the Pitts; proper time and occasions for the performance of sraddha; persons (viz., vardhusika, cikitsaka and others) who do not deserve to be invited in sraddha ceremonies; persons 186 who are 'pankti-pavana'; results of 134 For mention of Pratisthana see Visnudharmottara 1, 130, 21; 131. 12; and 135.15. 135 trisanku varjayed desam sarvam dvadasa-yojanam/ uttarena patamgasya daksinena ca kaikatam//. desas traisamkavo nama vivarjyah sraddha-karmani/, karaskarah kalingas ca sindhor uttaram eva ca//. caturvarnya-vihinas ca ye ca desa naradhipa/, anyesv api ca desesu tad-desa-jana-darsanam//, 136 Such as those who have studied any of the four Puranas, Itihasa, sottara Visnudharma', or grammar; Visnudh, I. 141. 2-4, Vedas, Dharmasastras, those who know Jyotisa

164 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS performing sraddha at selected places (viz., Gaya, Puskara, Prayaga, Naimisa, Varanasi, Prabhasa and Kuruksetra; banks of the Ganga, Yamuna and Narmada; mountains such as Amarantika-parvata, Varaha-paravata and Himavat; and so on). Chapter 145.-Pitr-gathas. Method of observing the Asunya-sayanadvitiya (as described by Pulastya to Dalbhya). Chapter 146.-Ways of release from rebirths. Characteristics of bulls (vrsa-laksana) as mentioned by Krsna to Yudhisthira. [This chapter refers to the contents of the Santi and Anusasana. Parvans of the Mahabharata, and to the Dharmasastras of Manu, Vasistha, Parasara, Atri, Samkha, Gargya, Likhita, Yama, Javali and many others. Chapter 147.-Procedure and praise of dedication of bulls (vrsotsarga) to the Pitrs. Chaps. 148-156.-Pururavas's penance and worship of Visnu on the Dvadasi Tithis in the Himalaya in his previous birth as a king of Madra, his performance of the Rupa-satra-vrata according to the method described by Atri, and his consequent attainment of uncommon physical beauty through Visnu's favour. Chaps. 157-161.-Description of various kinds of Dvadasi-vratas, viz., Rajya-prada-dvadasi-vrata, Kama-dvadasi-vrata, Sukla-paksa-dvadasi-vrata, and Sravana-dvadasi-vrata (in all of which Visnu is to be worshipped.) Chapter 162.-Praise of the Sravana-dvadasi-vrata by means of a story of a merchant who strayed into a forest in Daseraka and met a group of spirits (preta), one of whom told him that he had been a merchant of Sakala and that, as a result of his observance of the Sravanadvadasi-vrata and giving food to Brahmins on this occasion at the confluence of the rivers Tausi and Candrabhaga, he used to have a regular supply of food and water even after his death. In this chapter, the Candrabhaga is described as a part of the or Ayurveda but do not earn their livelihood with these; and so on.- Chapter 143, verses 12-19.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 165 13 and the Tausi is called 'arka-nandini' (daughter of the Ganga , Sun), 138 and the meeting places of the following rivers are said to be highly sacred:-(a) Ganga and Sarayu, (b) Ganga and Sona, (c) Gamga and Iksumati, (d) Ganga and Yamuna, (e) Gomati and Sarayu, (f) Kausiki and Gandaki, (g) Vipasa and Devahrada, (h) Vipasa and Satadru, (i) Sindhu and Iravati, (j) Candrabhaga and Vitasta, and (k) Sindhu and Vitasta.-Verses 61-65. Chaps. 163-164.-Description of the Tila-dvadasi-vrata (which is Vaisnava). Praise of this Vrata by means of the story of Nayanasundari, wife of king Candavega of Magadha, who, in her previous birth in a country watered by the river Vitasta, performed the Tila-dvadasivrata on the bank of this river and consequently attained royalty. In Chapter 164, verses 23-26 the Vitasta has been praised as a highly sacred river and identified with Uma, the beloved wife of Hara. Chapter 165. Method and praise of muttering the Gayatri; and the cause and efficacy of its use in various kinds of Vaisnava boma (viz., laksa-homa, koti-homa etc.) and in abhicara. [For the method of using Gayatri in abbicara and the restrictions under which it is to be employed for this purpose, see verses 55-67.] Chaps. 166-7. The method and result of dipa-dana in Visnutemples and other places. (The use of animal-fat and of blue or red wicks in lamps is strictly prohibited.-Verses 31 and 35). Story of Lalitika (or Lalita), daughter of king Citraratha of Vidarbha and wife of the king of Kasi, who always kept herself engaged in dipa-dana and who, in her previous birth as a female mouse, chanced to cause an extinguishing lamp to continue to burn in a Visnu-temple constructed by Maitreya (the Brahmin minister of the king of Sauvira) at Nrsimha-tirtha on the bank of the river 137-138 candrabhaga saric-chrestha yatra sitamalodaka/ mahadeva-jatajute ganga nipatita pura// candrena bhagato nyasta candrabhaga smrta tatah/ tat-kala-tapta-salila tausi tatrarka-nandini// Visnudharmottara I. 162. 34-35.

166 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Devika in Madra and was consequently born and married in royal families. In chap. 167, verses 15-18 it is said that, for the good of mankind, Brahmins caused Uma, wife of Hara, to come down to the earth in the form of the river Devika. Chapter 168.-Praise of Visnu-worship with wild flowers, fruits etc. by poor people. Chaps. 169-170.-Results of sweeping a Visnu-temple and besmearing it with cow-dung. Story of a destitute Sudra and his wife, who felt a strong desire for royal fortune at the sight of Citravahana, king of Sauvira, and were reborn as Mandhatr (son of Yuvanasva and king of Ayodhya) and Prabhavati (daughter of Bhimavega, king of Kasi) respectively a result of besmearing, with cow-dung, a Visnu-temple which was situated on the bank of the Sindhu and in which an image of Varaha was established by sages of old. Mandhatr's conquest of the world, and his devotion to Visnu. [The river Sindhu has been praised in chap. 170, verses 4 ff.]. Chaps. 171-172. Being questioned by Vajra as to how this Mandhatr could be killed by Lavana with the sula of Mahesvara, Markandeya says that such an incident became possible simply because the energy of Visnu (vaisnavam tejah) resorted to the tip of Siva's sula. Markandeya's description and praise of 'vaisnava-tejas', without which, Markandeya says, even Brahma and Siva cannot live and which cannot be comprehended without bhakti. Markandeya adds that it is Visnu who is the single eternal Being (avinasi tad evaikam) known by different names such as Sadasiva, Vasudeva, Kala, Daiva, Svabhava, Purusa, Pranava etc. and who, though himself eternal, formless, omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent, manifests himself as Varaha etc. for accomplishing various objects but is not bound by his actions. Description of kings of the Treta-yuga.-It is said that these kings could cleanse their faces with their own tongues; each of them had 68 teeth and possessed seven gems (sapta ratnani), viz., basti-ratna, asva-ratna, ratha-ratna, bharya-ratna, ayudba-ratna, mani-ratna and nidhi-ratna; their movement was not obstructed in the nether world,

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 167 the sky, the mountains and the sea; and so on.- Chapter 172, verses 37-46. Chaps. 173-174.-Description of the Ananta-vrata (by performing which Yuvanasva and Krtavitya had Mandhatr and Kartaviryarjuna respectively as sons) and Masa-naksatra-pujana-vrata (in which Visnu is to be worshipped for one year from Karttika). [In chapters 175-191 Markandeya reports, in connection with Masa-naksatra-pujana-vrata, what Sambarayani said to Indra.] Chaps. 175-189.-Accounts of the past, present and future Manvantaras, with the mention of Visnu's killing of the foes of the respective Indras during these Manvantaras by assuming different forms such as those of Matsya, Kurma, Hamsa, Asva, Nr-varaha, Mayura etc. Chapter 190-Eternity of Visnu; and his innumerable manifestations in different Manvantaras, viz., Varaha, Vamana, Trivikrama, Narasimha, Matsya, Kurma, Hamsa, Nr-varaha, Rama (Bhargava), Rama, Mandhatr, Prthu, Kartaviryarjuna and others. Chapter 191.-Sambarayani's statement that it was by observing the Masa-naksatra-pujana-vrata that she was able to attain such an extremely long life and residence in heaven. Chaps. 192-194.-Praise of Visnu-stuti. Story of the transformation of the Gandharvas Haha and Huhu into an elephant and a crocodile respectively as a result of Devala's curse, because these Gandharvas disrespected Devala by taking him to be ignorant of music. Fight between the elephant and the crocodile; and the former's eulogy of Visnu, who consequently saved the elephant by killing the crocodile and restored both the animals to their former states. [This story is called 'gajendra-moksana'. In chap. 194, verses 58 ff. Ganga, Naimisaranya, Prayaga, Brahma-tirtha and Dandakaranya have been praised.] Chapter 195. Method of self-protection by means of the Visnupanjara-stotra, which Brahma discovered for Samkara's safety when the latter destroyed Tripura. Chapter 196.-Protection of others from various kinds of diseases

168 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS and calamities by means of the Visnu-panjara-stotra and other Vaisnava stotras and mantras (especially those of Narasimha). Chaps. 197-198.-Origin of Yaksas, Raksasas, Pisacas and Yatudhanas; and the names of their descendants (including Heti, Praheti, Ravana, Puloman and others). Chapter 199.-Story of the birth of Cyavana and his reducing Puloman to ashes with an angry glance when Cyavana's mother Puloma was being abducted by this Raksasa. Chapter 200.-Birth of the Raksasa named Lavana, and his death at the hand of Satrughna. Chaps. 201-269.- Rama's order to Bharata to chastise the impious (adharma-nirata) Gandharvas living on both banks of the Sindhu; and Bharata's consequent march against, and killing of, these Gandharvas including Sailusa, and sending the rest to the Himalaya. Bharata's march against the Gandharvas has been described elaborately in chapters 202-209. According to chap. 203 Rama sent with Bharata a retinue consis ting of actors, musicians, dancing girls, public women, merchants (or contractors), poison-doctors, physicians, surgeons. 139 dentists (dantakarah, dantopajivinah), engineers, weavers, leather-workers, fishermen, tailors, scribes, astrologers, manufacturers of weapons, washermen, painters etc. 140 During his march Bharata is said to have seen the following rivers and places: Ganga, Yamuna, Sanniti (a holy place in Kuruksetra), Amarakantaka, Satadru (also called Gauri), Vipasa, Iravati, Devika, Candrabhaga, Vitasta, Sudama (a river) and Rajagrha (capital of Kekaya).-Chaps. 206-207. In chap. 207 the holy place Sanniti and the rivers Yamuna, Satadru, Vipasa, Iravati, Devika, Candrabhaga and Vitasta have been specially glorified as being highly sacred; regarding Sanniti it has been said that here Dadhica called together all the holy places and rivers on earth before giving up his life for the sake of Indra and that thence- *39 visa-vaidyah salya-vaidyas tatha kaya-cikitsakah// - Chapter 203. verse ga. 140 This list seems to have been influenced by Ramayana II. 83. 12 ff.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 169 forward all the gods and tirthas used to visit this place every month; the reasons for the names 'Satadru' and 'Vipasa' have been stated; and the rivers Satadru and Devika have been identified with Uma, the beloved wife of Hara. Chapter 208 contains description of the hurry and eagerness of women of Rajagrha to see Bharata when he was entering the city. In chapters 212-247 Nadayana advises Sailusa not to declare war against Bharata but to repair peacefully to the Himalaya, and relates the following stories: - (1) Agastya's drinking of the waters of the ocean for helping Indra to kill the demons who had taken shelter in it after Vrtra's death; his lowering of the Vindhya which had covered the paths of the sun and the moon; his killing of Vatapin by thoroughly digesting him; and his furnishing the bows of Rama and Laksmana with invincible 'vaisnava-tejas.'- Chapter 213. (2) Visnu's war with and killing of the demon Malin of Lanka, - a story which had been narrated to Rama by Agastya.-Chaps. 214-215. The following rivers are said to have joined Visnu in his march against Malin:-Ganga, Kalindi, Sarayu, Gomati, Godavari, Sarasvati, Satadru, Vipasa, Candrabhaga, Iravati, Sindhu, Vitasta, Devika, Gandaki, Kaveri, Hiranvati, Iksumati, Parnasa, Kausiki, Vedasmrti, Narmada, Sita, Hradini, Pavani, Lauhitya, Sindhu, Caksu, Sita, Gautami, Drsadvati, and 'others.'- Chapter 215, verses 43-52. (3) Story of Ravana and his exploits and death.-Birth of Kuvera from Devavarnini by Visravas, and his residence at Lanka which was situated on the mountain Trikuta. Birth of Dasagriva, Kumbhakarna, Vibhisana and Surpanakha from Kaikasi by Visravas, their penance at Gokarna, and their receipt of boons from Brahma; Ravana's leadership of those Raksasas who had filed to Patala after Malin's death, his wresting of Lanka from Kuvera, and his world-conquest. Ravana's attempt to molest Vedavati,141 daughter of Kusadhvaja, and the latter's entrance into fire with the threat that she would be born again as an 141 For the story of Vedavati, see chap. 221, verses 17 ff. This story is based on Ramayana VII, 17. 22

170 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS ayonija' being for bringing about his destruction; birth of Vedavati as Sita; and the incidents in her life (including her entrance into the nether world). Ravana's taking away of the chariot called Puspaka from Kuvera, and his sad experience in Kailasa (where he was cursed by Nandin that monkeys would bring about his destruction); his victory over the gods; his conquest of Patala; and his experience at Kiskindhya (where there was a conflict between Balin and Sugriva). Ravana's meeting with Bali, the former's inability to remove one of the ear-rings which Bali inherited from Hiranyakasipu, and Bali's praise of Visnu who had killed Hiranyakasipu; Ravana's meeting with Visnu, in whose body he saw all the gods and the whole universe and who told him that he would be born as a human being. and kill Ravana.-Chaps. 219-223 and 238-239. (4) Siva's eulogy of Vinayaka, and his burning of Tripura with an arrow, the tip of which was occupied by Visnu.-Chaps. 224(?)¹¹³-225. (5) Siva's killing of the demon Andhaka with the help of the Matrs created by himself as well as by Visnu and Narasimha whom Siva had eulogised for help.- Chapter 226. (This chapter contains the names of a large number of Matrs including Kali and Mahakali). (6) Birth of Sadanana on the mountain Sveta; his boons to the Krttikas to be worshipped with himself at a time when the moon would remain with the Krttikas, and to Ganga to be worshipped on the Vaisakha-sukla-ttiya (which is called Aksaya-trtiya); Indra's creation of a large number of highly pernicious beings called Grahas, viz., gods, Pitrs, demons, Raksasas, evil spirits, Nagas etc., for doing harm to Sadanana's life; Sadanana's creation of a far larger number of similar Grahas named Skanda, Visakha etc. to counteract the influence of those created by Indra, and his prescription of particular duties to these Grahas; Indra's praise of Skanda and his worship; Siva's appointment of Skanda as the general of gods; and Skanda's killing of the demon Mahisa and others.-Chaps. 228-230 and 233. 142 In the printed ed., chapters 223 and 225 are incomplete and chap. 224 is wanting.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 171 (7) Narayana's saving of Yajna from the hand of Siva. Chapter 234. (8) Destruction of Daksa's sacrifice by Virabhadra and Bhadrakali born of Siva and Parvati respectively, because Daksa refused to give to Siva a share of the sacrificial offerings; Daksa's eulogy of Siva at Bhadra-karnesvara according to Virabhadra's advice; Siva's boon to Daksa.- Chapter 235. (In this chapter the confluence of the Sarasvati and the Jahnavi at Bhadrakarnesvara as well as the five holy places-'tirtha-pancaka', viz., Gangadvara, Kusavarta, Bilvaka, Nilaparvata and Kanakhala, have been highly praised by Siva, Mahakali has been eulogised and described as 'astadasa-bhuja', 'sula-mudgara-dharini', 'kamandaludhara', 'pitakauseya-vasana', and 'nilotpala-dala-syama', and her worship has been prescribed on the Sukla-navami). (9) Story of sage Sveta, who used to worship a Siva-linga and whom Siva saved from the hands of Yama by reducing him to ashes, because Yama refused to wait till Sveta could finish his worship of Siva. Description of Visnu-kavaca, with which Siva protected himself against Yama.-Chaps. 236-237- (10) Satrughna's fight with and killing of the Raksasa named Lavana who lived at Madhuvana.-Chaps. 240-247. Chapter 227 contains the names of herbs, food meterials etc. with which the enraged Matrs can be pacified. Chaps. 231-232 deal with the following topics: -Various kinds of actions which bring people under the influence of the Grahas created by Indra and Sadanana; causes which encourage these Grahas to exert their influence;' symptoms of persons influenced by different kinds of Grahas; and treatment of such persons by means of herbs, mantras etc. 143 In chapters 248-253 Nadayana further speaks to Sailusa on the following topics: Beasts and birds descended from Pulaha.- Chapter 248. Brahma's appointment of kings over herbs, stars, water, gods, 143 For these causes see chap. 231, verses 12 b-14 a,

172 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Yaksas, Daityas, Danavas, Pisacas etc.; coronation of Indra.-Chaps. 249-250. Origin of the eight elephants named Airavana, Padma, Puspadanta etc. (which are called quarter-elephants-dig-gajah), and the classification of their descendants. Location of the eight forests in which the eight quarter-elephants live with their descendants. Characteristics of elephants living in these forests.- Chapter 251. Monkeys descended from Pulaha.- Chapter 252. Description of the fight between the elephants and monkeys at Antarvedi. Indra's severing of the wings of elephants and sending them down to earth to serve Lomapada, king of Anga. Lomapada's authorship of a Sutra-work on medical treatment of elephants. Chapter 253. Chaps. 254-257-Sailusa's determination to wage war against Bharata in spite of Nadayana's advice to the contrary. Inability of the Gandharvas, sent by Sailusa, to create the least disturbance in Ayodhya, Rajagrha and Bharata's camp. Description of love-lorn women in Ayodhya. Chaps. 258-268.- Description of the war between Bharata and Sailusa, a war which resulted in the death of the latter. Description of the battle-field. Chapter 269.-Bharata's performance of Visnu's sayanotsava and jagaranotsava for five days each from Asadha-suklaikadasi and Karttika-suklaikadasi respectively; his construction, for his sons Puskara and Taksa, of two cities named Puskaravati and Taksasila on both banks of the Sindhu; his return to Ayodhya and worship of Visnu. Khanda II [This Khanda deals with the duties of kings-raja-dharma.] Chapter 1.-Vajra praises Markandeya for narrating, with various other topics, the story of Bharata's successful war against the Gandharvas and requests him to describe what Bhargava Rama heard from Varuna after reaching the latter's region. Markandeya says that Rama Jamadagnya first heard from Varuna about measurement of

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 173 time and then asked him to speak on the duties of kings (taja-dharma), that Varuna referred Bhargava Rama to his own son Puskara, who, Varuna said, had heard about raja-dharma from Indra, and that, in compliance with Varuna'a request, Puskara took Bhargava Rama to his own residence. Chaps. 2-7. Being requested by Bhargava Rama, Puskara spoke on the following topics: Necessity of a pious and dutiful king for the establishment of law and order in the country; various qualifications (such as submission to the opinions of ministers and the state-astrologer) that a king must possess; selection, to be made by the king's predecessors as well as by the most prominent people of the state, of a worthy member of the royal family for the throne; 144 the king's oath; appointment of a qualified Brahmin as state-astrologer (samvatsara)-the first duty of the king; qualifications of the state-astrologer, and the king's submission to him; selection of ministers, priest (purohita) and chief queen in accordance with the instructions of the state-astrologer; the king's coronation to be performed by the state-astrologer; qualifications of the Purohita (who is to be an Atharvan versed in the Yajur-veda and the Atharva-veda and to have thorough knowledge of the five kalpas, viz., naksatra-kalpa, vaitana-kalpa, samhita-kalpa, angirah-kalpa and santi-kalpa); necessity of Purohita for peace and prosperity of the king; qualifications of ministers, who are to be Brahmins versed in the Vedas and the Niti-sastras of Brhaspati and Usanas; 145 qualifications to be possessed by the chief queen. Chaps. 8-9-Auspicious signs of men and women. Chaps. 10-11.-Characteristic signs of good and bad elephants and horses. Chaps. 12-14.-Making of a chowry, an umbrella and a holy seat (bhadrasana) for the king. Chapter 15.-Names and characteristics of jewels to be worn by the king. 144 See chap. 3, verse 8, and chap. 4, verse 1. 145 See chap. 6, verse 2.

174 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Chaps. 16-17.-Construction of bows with metals (such as gold, silver, copper and steel), horns (of buffaloes, sarabhas and other beasts), bamboo, wood etc. Construction of arrows, and of swords with steel of different countries, viz., Vanga, Surparaka, Videha, Anga etc. Characteristics of swords manufactured in these countries. Story of the origin of 'khadga' (sword) from a divine being named Nandaka and of 'loba' (steel) from the different limbs of a demon named Loha. [In connection with the selection of materials for the construction of bows, Puskara says: vamsanam api tac chrestam yatra ganga mahanadi/ salanam api tac chrestam gomati yatra bhargava/ vitasta-kulajam srestham vetasinam tathaiva ca// Chapter 16, verses 14-15 a. The countries manufacturing the best arrows are mentioned in the following lines: -- -- sarah kiratajah sresthah kancipura-samipatah/ teblyo'pi te sresthatamah skanda-janma-samipatah//, Chapter 16, verses 20 b-21 a. The following verses name the countries producing steel of different qualities for the manufacture of swords :loham pradhanam khadgarthe prasastam tad visesatah/ katikadura-rsikam vange surparakesu ca// videhesu tathangesu madhyamam gramacedisu/ sahagramesu nipesu tatha kalanjare 'pi ca// Chapter 17, verses 21 b-23 a.] Chaps. 18-23.-On coronation.-Proper time for coronation; performance of Purandara-Santi; characteristics of fire in which homas are to be performed; procedure of coronation; mantras to be used on this occasion,-all these mantras being Puranic in character and containing invocations to the gods, goddesses (including Durga mounted on a lion), Dik-palas, Prajapatis, Pitrs, Matrs, wives of Dharma, Kasyapa and others, Naksatras, Planets, Manus, Rudras (including Dhumaketu, Bharata and Kapali), Sadhyas, Adityas, Maruts, Gandharvas, Apsarases, Daityas, Danavas, Raksasas, Yaksas, Pisacas, Suparnas and others.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 175 [In some of the mantras given in chap. 22, there is mention of (i) Rg-veda, Yajur-deda, Sama-veda, Atharva-veda, Itihasa, Dhanurveda, Gandharva-veda, Ayurveda, the six Angas (viz., siksa, kalpa etc.), Mimamsa, Dharmasastra, Purana, Samkhya, Yoga, Pancaratra, and Pasupata (chap. 22, verses 129-134); (ii) a large number of holy places, rivers, lakes etc., the majority of which belongs to the western and north-western parts of Northern India (chap. 22, verses 142-184). It is to be noted that the names of the rivers include the following -Sindhu (mentioned thrice), Sarasvati, Satadru, Gomati (mentioned twice), Sarayu, Vipasa, Candrabhaga, Iravati, Vitasta, Devika (mentioned twice) and Iksumati. Kausiki and Karatoya also have been mentioned.] Praise of tirthas. Chaps. 24-25.-The first and the most important duty of a newly crowned king.-Selection of qualified persons for the posts of generals (who should be Brahmins or Ksatriyas), messengers (who should know the local dialects), body-guards, tambula-dharin, sandhi-vigrahaka, khadga-dharin, kosa-dharin, sarathi, sudadhyaksa, cooks, judge, scribe (lekhaka), gate-keeper, gajadhyaksa, asvadhyaksa, durgadhyaksa etc. Conduct of these officers towards the king. Chaps. 26-27.-Selection of proper place for residence; construction of forts (viz., dhanva-durga, mahi-durga, nara-durga, varksa-durga, ambu-durga and giri-durga) and furnishing these with houses, means of protection, herbs etc. Chaps. 28-32.-Protection of the king from poison etc. Science of house-building (vastu-vidya). Directions about gardening and plantation. Building of temples, and making provisions for the worship of different deities. Praise of rendering service and making gifts to Brahmins; and glorification of Brahmins as superior to, and more powerful than, gods. Chaps. 33-41.-On the conduct and duties of women.- Praise of chaste women, and the protection to be given to them by the state. Duties of a chaste woman.-She is to live under the guardianship of her father, husband or sons. She is not to take to magic (mula-

176 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 1148 karma) for any reason whatsoever. In case she becomes a widow, she is to die by mounting the funeral pyre of her deceased husband 146 remain devoted to him without marrying for the second time. A wife, who dies in the above-mentioned way, is said to have a very happy future. If a widow has none on her husband's side, she is to be maintained by her father or some other relative on her father's side. Chapter 34. Duties of women continued.-Their worship of Sri, Asokika, Chando-deva, vastu-devata, Visnu, a cow with a calf, the constellations called Krttika and Rohini, Karttika, Gauri and Narayana. Chapter 35. Story of Savitri, narrated elaborately to exemplify the power of a devoted wife.-Chaps. 36-41. Chaps. 42-44.-On cows.-Sanctity of cows; praise of service to cows; medical treatment of various diseases of cows (viz., those of the eyes, teeth, mouth, heart etc.); description of rites (santi-karma) and measures for the welfare of cows in normal times as well as in various kinds of crises. Chaps. 45-50-On horses and elephants.-Necessity of these to kings; medical treatment of various diseases of these animals; description of rites (viz., asva-santi and gaja-santi) and measures for their welfare. Chaps. 51-60.-Necessity of man-power to the king. Directions about the selection of persons for helping the king in his work of public administration.- Chapter 51. Medical treatment of females, so that they may give birth to numerous healthy sons. 146 Nursing and medical treatment of children from their very birth. pati-vrata tu ya nari saha bhartra divam gata/ kalpavasesam mudita pujyate tridasalaye|| (chap. 34, verse 41), and mrtam bhartaram adaya yadi vatha pati-vrata/ pravised dvija-sardula jvalitam jatavedasam// tisrah kotyo 'rdha-koti ca yani lomani manave/ tavanty eva satabdani svarga-loke mahiyate// and so on (chap. 34. verses 47 ff.).

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 177 Use of herbs and performance of various rites for their welfare. Performance of other rites and sacraments, viz., jata-karma, karna-vedha, niskramana, anna-prasana¹47 and vidyarambha.148_Chap. 52. Rites and vows (viz., Rohini-snana, Saptami-vrata¹ and Astamivrata) to ensure the birth of male children.-Chaps. 53-55. Symptoms and medical treatment of various diseases of males.- Chapter 56. Description of ceremonial baths and vows (viz., Satabhisa-snana, Arogya-dvitiya-vrata, 150 Arogya-pratipad¹¹ and Arogya-vrata) meant especially for ensuring freedom from diseases.-Chaps. 57-60. Chapter 61. On raja-dharma.-Appointment of administrative officers, viz., gramadhipati, dasa-gramadhipa, sata-gramadhipa and visayesvara, whose activities are to be keenly observed through spies. Benefits of good administration. Protection of subjects especially from the tyranny of Kayasthas. 152 Necessity of financial strength. Mention of the manifold avenues of income (viz., revenues, taxes, mines etc.). Laws about treasure-troves, lost articles, inherited property and stolen goods. Rates of taxation on various kinds of indigenous and foreign goods. Protection to be given by kings to Srotriya Brahmins. Chapter 62.-Necessity of females in life. The king's duties to the inmates of his harem.. Chaps. 63-64.-Directions about the preparation of food and perfumes. Chapter 65. Education and protection of princes; general conduct 147 Chapter 52, verses 102-109. This rite includes the testing of the future tendency of the child by means of books, weapons, wares etc. 148 Chapter 52, verses 123 ff. At the beginning of this ceremony, Hari, Laksmi, Sarasvati and the Sutrakaras are to be worshipped, 149 In this vrata the Sun is to be worshipped. 150 In this vrata the Moon is to be worshipped at night. 151 In this vrata the Sun is to be worshipped. 152 .bhaksyamanah praja raksyah kayasthais ca visesatah.-Verse 29. For an idea of the tyranny of the Kayasthas in Kashmir see Ksemendra's Kala-vilasa, Narma-mala and Desopadesa, and Kalhana's Rajatarangini, iv. 90 and 621 ff., vii. 1226, and viii. 131 and 85-114. 23

178 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS of a successful ruler; his duties towards his friends and foes; benefits of good deliberation and of maintenance of its secrecy. Chaps. 66-71.-Praise of purusakara (enterprise). Proper application of the expedients, viz., sama (which is classified into 'tathya' and 'atathya'), bheda, dana and danda. The king's possession of certain divine capacities, viz., those of the Sun, the Moon, the Wind, the son of Vivasvat (i.e. Yama), Varuna and others. Chapter 72.-Occasions for application of danda.-Laws about inheritance of property, unclaimed articles, stolen goods, witnesses, mortgaged property, deposits, contract, purchase, marriage, boundary, defamation, criminal assault, theft, adultery, prostitution, holy days, gambling, prize-fighting, labour, embankments, taking of forbidden food, etc.; and nature of punishment in case of violation of these laws. Chapter 73.-Occasions for application of danda.-Rules of expiation (prayascitta) for sin caused by food, killing of animals, theft etc.; and punishment for violation of these rules. Chapter 74. Methods of performance of various kinds of rahasyaprayascitta. Chaps. 75-76.-Determination of the periods of impurity (asauca) caused by births and deaths; cremation and other attendant rites (such as offer of food and water to the deceased, consolation of the bereaved relatives, and so on); purification of things (dravya-suddhi). Chaps. 80-82.-Duties of the four castes. Origin, nature, and duties of the mixed castes (viz., Candala, Magadha, Ayogava, Vaidehaka, Suta, Pukkasa and others). Profession of the members of the four castes in times of extreme distress (apad-dharma); rules about interest and agriculture." 153 Chaps. 83-84.-Description of ceremonial baths, viz., Purvasadhasnana (meant for profit in trade) and Mula-snana (for gain in agriculture). Chaps. 85-86.-Rules to be observed during cohabitation with the wife to ensure the birth of a male child; description of the different sacraments (samskara). Duties of a student. Chapter 87.-Marriage. - Intercaste marriage-permissible in the 153 For directions about agriculture see chap. 82, verses 13 ff,

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 179 descending order of castes; relative position of the wives of different castes; disapprobation of the acceptance of sulka (nuptial fee); remarriage of women; 154 forms of marriage; method of accepting the girls of different castes; auspicious time for marriage; rules about adhivedana; and so on. Description of the method of worshipping Saci before celebrating a marriage ceremony. 155 Chaps. 88-110.- Daily duties of a householder, viz., answering the call of nature, cleansing the mouth, bathing etc. Various prescriptions and prohibitions for a householder. - Chaps. 88-89. Method of worshipping Visnu, and selection of flowers for the purpose. Chaps. 90-91. Performance of Vaisvadeva; offer of food to the manes; giving of fodder to cows; reception of guests; gifts of various things to guests. - Chapter 92. Instructions about taking food and sleeping. Performance of 'panca-mahayajna' as well as of other sacrifices.-Chaps. 93-95. Description of ceremonial baths (viz., Krttika-snana, Ardra-snana, Sravana-snana, Janmarksa-snana, Dikpala-snana, Vinayaka-snana, Mahesvara-snana etc.) and of special worship of Visnu under particular Naksatras and on special occasions for the accomplishment of desired objects, such as destruction of one's enemies, freedom from diseases, and so on.-Chaps. 96-110. Chaps. 111-123.-On karma-vipaka.-Results of sinful acts such as murder, theft, etc. Description of birth of creatures (with a discourse on bhoga-deba and the origin of the foetus.-Chaps. 112-114). 154 naste mrte pravrajite klibe 'tha patite 'patau/ pancasv apatsu narinam patir anyo vidhiyate// (II. 87. 11). This verse occurs again in Visnudharmottara III. 329 and is the same as Parasara-smrti 4. 30. Both in Visnudharmottara III. 329 (verse 14) and Parasara-smrti, chap. 4 it reads 'patite patau'. 155 See verses 21 ff. During this worship, an image of Saci is to be constructed with earth, taken with great ceremony to the side of a river or a lake by such women as have their husbands living, and worshipped for three days, While taking the image to the place of worship, these women are to wear red clothes and carry arms in their hands.

180 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Description of the structure of the human body (chap. 115). Passing of the soul out of the body, and the dissolution of the latter into the five elements; description of the region of the dead-preta-loka (chap. 116). Actions (viz., the due performance of one's duties, abstention from wine, meat etc., donation of various things, and so on) that lead to heaven; and actions leading to hell.-Chaps. 117-8. Names and description of hells; results of stealing different articles. -Chaps. 119-121. Actions that enable people to get over difficulties. Description of various kinds of expiatory penances, viz., Candrayana, Santapana, Taptakrcchra, Krechratikrcchra etc.-Chaps. 122-3. Chaps. 124-129--Praise of muttering the Gayatri and the different Suktas of the Rgveda. Method of performing vasikarana, uccatana etc. with the use of mantras of the Yajurveda. Attainment of different objects by muttering different mantras of the Sama-veda and the Atharva-veda and performing bomas with these. Praise of the Sri-sukta and the Purusa-sukta, and their use in homas. Chaps. 130-131.-Duties of vanaprasthas and samnyasins. Chaps. 132-133-Mention of various kinds of Atharvana santi (purificatory rite) meant for the accomplishment of various objects. Chaps. 134-144-Various kinds of heavenly, atmospheric and terrestrial omens (utpata), as described by Vrddha-garga to Atri. Chaps. 145-150.-Mention of the seven angas of a kingdom, viz., sama, dana, durga, kosa, danda, mitra and janapada; description of a circle of kings (raja-mandala) consisting of vijigisu, ari, mitra, parsnigraha, akranda etc. Description and application of prakasa and aprakasa danda; occasion for upeksa; terrifying the enemies by creating artificial omens, shouting, taking to magic, and by various other means; explanation and application of sadgunya. Chapter 151. Daily duties of kings, viz., meeting the spies, hearing about the income and expenditure, answering the call of nature, and so on (including hearing of disputes and deliberation with ministers). Chaps. 152-158.-Religious rites to be performed by the king. Description of Visnu-worship for four months (caturmasya-vidhi);

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 181 worship of Indra's banner (sakra-dhvaja), which Visnu gave to the gods after the latter's defeat in a war with the demons and which was worshipped by king Vasu and others according to the directions of Garga; worship of Bhadrakali in a picture on Asvina-sukla-navami. Chaps. 159-161.-Description of nirajana-santi. Mantras of chatra, asva, dhvaja etc., and Ghrta-kambala-santi, as described by Parasara to Galava. Chapter 162.-Annual coronation of the king. Chaps. 163-165. Proper time for marching against enemies. Omens indicating good or evil in marches. Determination of the king's good or evil from questions etc. Chaps. 166-174-On astrology and astronomy.-Position of planets and stars, and their influence on the life and activity of the king; astronomical calculations (including measurement of planets and stars). [All these chapters are written in prose, and in these, Brahma speaks to Bhrgu. Towards the beginning of chap. 166 the former says to the latter: "When, at the beginning of the Kalpa, you were born from my heart, I told you about the movements of the luminaries in twenty-four lacs of verses. I shall repeat all these very briefly. >> 156 ... The colophon of chap. 174 is followed by the words 'samaptam paitamaha-siddhantam'.] Chaps. 175-176.-Determination of proper time for starting against enemies. Rites (such as worship of Vinayaka and other deities, performance of jaya-snana or bath for victory, consecration of weapons, and so on) to be performed before and during the start; the king's conduct in the land of his enemies. Chapter 177.-Preliminaries of war (viz., bathing of elephants and 156 See Visnudharmottara II. 166-...sribrahmanam bhrgur vijnapayamasa-bhagavan jyotisam ayanam srotum icchami/ tam uvaca bhagavan pitamahah/ yada me tvam kalpadau hrdayaj jatas tada maya te slokanam caturvimsati-laksam jyotirayanam uktam tad evasmin varune yajne mahadeva-sapena jvalam bhittva vinirgatasya janmantarotpannasya atisamksiptam vaksyami/ tacchrutva sarvam eva te purva-janmabhihitam jyotir-jnanam avirbhavisyati/

182 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS horses, worship of Nrsimha, and so on). Philosophy and method of war (with the names of vyuhas and the mention of the dexterity of people of different countries in different types of war); 157 praise of death in war; duty of the king after attainment of victory. Chaps. 178-183.-On dhanurveda (including use of khadga, prasa, sula etc. in war, and dressing of horses and elephants for the same purpose). Khanda III. Chapter 1. Vajra's enquiry about the means of attaining happiness here and hereafter; and Markandeya's praise of the worship of deities in sacrifices, on the one hand, and of the observance of fasts, vows etc., on the other. Praise of worship of deities in beautiful images constructed in accordance with the principles of painting (citrasutra-vidhanena) Chapter 2. Being requested by Vajra to speak on the art of painting (citrasutram) Markandeya says that knowledge of painting is dependent on that of dancing, knowledge of dancing rests on that of instrumental music (atodya), and the science of instrumental music is dependent on that of vocal music (gita), and that one, who is versed in the science of vocal music, can master all the rest. 158 157 Sec verses 40-43 a- daksinatyas ca vijneyah kusalah khadga-varminah/ vankala dhanvino jneyah parvatiyas tathaiva ca// pasana-yuddha-kusalas tatha parvata-vasinah/ pancalah surasenas ca rathesu kusala narah// kamboja ye ca gandharah kusalas te hayesu ca/ prayasas ca tatha mleccha vijneyah pasa-yodhinah// anga vamgah kalimgas ca jneya matamga-yodhinah/ 158 Verses 3 b-7- vina tu nrtya-sastrena citrasutram sudurvidam/ jagato na kriya karya dvayor api yato nrpa// ... *** *** atodyam yo na janati tasya nrttam hi durvidam/ atodyena vina nrttam vidyate na kathamcana// ••• ••• na gitena vina sakyam jnatum atodyam apy uta/ gita-sastra-vidhanajnah sarvam vetti yathavidhi//

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 183 Going to speak on gita-sastra Markandeya refers to the following topics:-composition of songs (i) in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsa and various local dialects and (ii) in prose and verse; 159 classification of verses into vrtta and matrika according to the nature of their metres:160 mention of some points on grammar, viz., use of sabda-vibhaktis, mention and use of different persons, and so on. Chapter 3. Mention of the following urttas (with the number of syllables in a quarter): -Gayatra, Usnik, Anustubh, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh, Jagati, Atijagati, Sakvari, Atisakvari, Asti, Atyasti, Vrtti, Ativrtti, Krti, Prakrti, Akrti, Vikrti, Samkrti, Vikrti(?) and Atikrti.161 Rules about reckoning the syllables as laghu or guru. Characteristics of Nivrt (?), Tamat (?), Virat and Sura; and the origin of the different types of matra-cchandah (or metres regulated by the numbers of syllabic instants).162 Chaps. 4-6.-Characteristics of the speeches of gods, sages, 159-160 Verses 9-11 samskrtam prakrtam caiva gitam dvividham ucyate/ apabhrastam trtiyam ca tad anantam naradhipa// desa-bhasa-visesena tasyanto neha vidyate/ gitam patha-vasaj jneyam sa ca patho dvidha matah// gadyam padyam ca dharmajna gadyam samkathaya smrtam/ padyam chando-visesena cchandas ca bahudha bhavet// . gadya-padyanubhavena jneyau laksana-samyutau/ padyam ca dvividham tatra suvrttam atimuktakam// 161 Verses 8 b-9 asamkrtis caika-samyukta kathita vikrtir nrpa/ sadvimsatis catikrtis chandas coktam manisibhih// The text of this verse is obviously corrupt. According to the Chando-manjari and the Vrtta-ratnakara, Atikrti has 25 syllables in a quarter and Utkrti has 26. 162 Verses 17-19 matracchandas tathaiva hi/ uktavarnaksaram chando bhaved eka-vivarjitah//. yada tada nivrt-samino by adhikena tamat tatha/ varna-dvayena rahitam virad iti hi sabditam// adhikam ca sura-samjnam kathitam yadu-sattama/, tebhyo bhavanti sarvani matra-cchandamsi yadava//

184 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS demons etc. Definition 168 and classification of sutras; characteristics of their explanation; different kinds of pramana; meaning of 'apta' and 'apta-vacanabhasa'; and so on. Explanation of the terms 'adhikarana,' 'yoga', 'padartha,' hetvartha,' 'uddesa', 'arthapatti' etc. Chapter 7.-Characteristics of Prakrit. This chapter ends with the following two verses: dimatram etad uddistam madhya prakrta-laksanam/ prayogad anukartavyo vistaro hy ativistarah// desesu desesu prthag vibhinnam na sakyate laksanatas tu vaktum/ lokesu yat syad apabhrasta-samjnam jneyam hi tad-desavido Chaps. 8-13. Sanskrit vocabulary.- 'dhikaram// List of synonymous words denoting various divine beings, division of time, rivers, men etc. Lists of feminine, masculine and neuter words. Chaps. 14-16.-On poetics (alamkara)Definition of anuprasa, and limitation in its use; 14 definition and use 165 of yamaka, and its classification into samdastaka and samudga; definitions of rupaka, vyatireka, slesa, utpreksa, arthantara-nyasa, upanyasa, vibhavana, atisayokti, svabhavokti, yatha-samkhya, visesokti, virodha, ninda-stuti, nidarsana etc.- Chapter 14. - [In some of the verses there are references to older authorities on poetics. See Chapter 14, verse 7-utpreksakhyo hy alamkarah kathitah sa puratanaih; verse 12-yathasamkhyam iti proktam alamkarah puratanaih; and verse 15-ananvayakhyam kathitam puranaih * * Definitions of itihasa' and 'kavya'. * *.] Definition and characteristics of 'mahakavya' (which should 163 Chapter 5, verse 1 alpaksaram asamdigdham saravad visvatomukham/ astobham anavadyam ca sutram sutravido viduh// 164 Chapter 14, verse 2 aatyartham tat krtam rajan gramyatam upagacchati/ (tat=anuprasam). 165 Chapter 14, verse 4 asamasta-pada-yamakam duskaram parikirtitam/

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 185 contain description of towns, countries etc. and have a nayaka and a pratinayaka, but should not describe the death of the nayaka).166 Defects in poetical composition. Delineation of nine Rasas in Mahakavyas, viz., srngara, basya, karuna, raudra, vira, bhayanaka, bibbatsa, adbhuta and santa. Chapter 15. Prahelikas (Riddles).-Classification of Prahelikas into those which are faulty (dosah) and those which are faultless. Names and definitions of the Prahelikas of the second type, viz., samagata, vandita,167 vrttanta-gopika, duhkhita, parihasika, samana-rupa, parusa, samkhyata, kalpita, namantarita, nibhrta, samana-sabda, vyamadba, guccha,188 eka-cchanna, ubhaya-cchanna, bahu-cchanna and samkirna. Further classification of Prahelikas into vyabhicarini, nastartha, nastaksara, varnabhrasta and lesakhya. Restriction on the use of even the faultless Prahelikas. 189- Chapter 16. Chaps. 17-31. On dramaturgy.Mention of 'Purana' as having four Padas (viz., Prakriya, Upodghata, Anusanga and Samhara) and five characteristics (pancalaksana-sarga, pratisarga, varsa, manvantara and vansanucarita). Origin of dramas; 170 general form of dramas; 171 classification of 166 Chapter 15, verses 7 b-8 apratinayaka-ghatas tu vaktavyo netarasya tu/ nayakasya maharaja maranam naiva varnayet// 167 The name 'varjita' (for 'vandita') occurs in the Dacca University Manuscript (No. 4669, fol. 10 b) of the Visnudharmottara. 168 The Dacca University Manuscript (No. 4669. fol. 10 b) reads 'gudhakhya" for 'gucchakhya'. 169 Chapter 16, verse 2-- slokenaikena va dvabhyam kartavya tu narottama/ na kartavyas ca ta rajan bahu-sloka-nibandhanah// 170 Chapter 17, verse 7 itihasanusarena purananam samiksitam/ caritam tridasanam va natakam tatra kirtitam// 171 In this connection the following verses are to be noted:- bahu-daivatikam vrttam kartavyam tu pravesakam/ samksepoktis ca kartavya kartavyo na hi vistarah// prakhyata-nayaka-vadham na ca tatra pravcsayet/ tasya prakasanam karyam anke'py eva naradhipa// 24

186 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS dramas into 12 varieties, viz., Nataka, Natika, Prakarana, 172 Prakarani, Utsrstikanka, 173 Bhana, 174 Samavakara, Ihamrga, Vyayoga, Vithi, Dima and Prahasana; 175 characteristics of these varieties; use of Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhrasta (i.e. Apabhramsa) in dramas; peculiarities (as regards names etc.) of different characters; characteristics of the eight types of nayikas (nayikastaka-laksanam), viz., vasa-sajja, virahotkanthita, svadhina-bhartrka, kalahantarita, khandita, vipralabdha, prosita-bhartrka, and abhisarika; 176 delineation of the nine Rasas including santa in dramas.- Chapter 17. 177 Characteristics of different kinds of vocal music (gita-laksanam); names of particular types of vocal music which are appropriate to the nire Rasas (including Santa.)- Chapter 18. Classification and characteristics of instrumental music (atodya); employment of particular types of instrumental music in the cases of the nine Rasas (including Santa).- Chapter 19. Dancing and acting.-Definition of natya; necessity of nrtta in theatrical performances; classification of nrtta; construction of the nayakabhyudayah karyo natakante tathaiva ca/ bahvyo'pi nayika yatra tasam api tatha bhavet// 172 Chapter 17, verses 19 b-21 Chapter 17, verses 16-18. krtam prakaranam tadvat svayam utpadya vastuna// brahmano nayakas tatra vanik ca nrpa-sattama/ evam prakarani karya catur-amkapi sa bhavet // itihasanubandho va svayam utpadya va krtah/ bharati-karuna-prayo nivrttam samanantaram// 173 The Dacca University Manuscript (No. 4669, fol. 11 b) reads 'utsrstakankah', whereas the printed edition has 'catustayankah'. 174 The printed edition reads 'pranah' for 'bhanah' of the University Manuscript (fol. 11 b). 175 According to the Natya-sastra, Prahasanas are divided into Bhanas and Vithis. 176 The line 'kantopasarpana-manas tatha jneyabhisarika', mentioning 'abhisarika', is wanting in the printed edition but occurs in the Dacca Univ, Manuscript (fol. 12 b). 177 Chapter 17, verse 61- srngara-hasya-karuna-vira-raudra-bhayanakah/ bibhatsadbhuta-santakhya nava natya-rasah smrtah//

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 187 stage; religious rites preceding and following a theatrical performance; description of the different modes of abhinaya, viz, aharya, sattvika, vacika and amgika; description of angaharas, karanas, sirah-karmans, rasa-drstis, hasta-vyavasthas, anga-racana (by means of paints), samanyabhinaya, gati-laksanas etc.-Chaps. 20-29. Treatment of the nine Rasas (including Santa)178 to be delineated in dramas. Chapter 30. Description of the 49 bhavas (including nirveda),' 179 and their relation to the different Rasas.- Chapter 31. [Chaps. 17-31 are based on Bharata's Natya-sastra.] Chaps. 32-34. In these chapters Markandeya professes to speak briefly on nrtya-sastra.' The topics dealt with in these chapters are as follows:Names and description of the various mudras to be performed in dancing. Chaps. 32-33. Story of the origin of dancing (nrtta) from Visnu.-Being eulogised by Brahma to kill the demons Madhu and Kaitabha, Visnu left his bed, moved gracefully on the ocean, and thus created the art of dancing, by which, he said, one can imitate the three worlds. 180 178 For santa-rasa see chap. 30, verses 1-2 averse 4 ahasya-srngara-karuna-raudra-vira-bhayanakah/ bibhats-adbhuta-santakhya nava natye rasah smirtah// santo rasah svatantro'tra prthag eva vyavasthitah/ santa-svabhava-varnas tu rasah prokto naradhipa/ and verses 8 b-11 a- santasya devo vijneyah parah purusa eva tu// santasya tu samutpattir nrpa vairagyatah smrta/ sa cabhineyo bhavati linga-grahanatas tatha// sarva-bhuta-daya-dhyana-moksa-marga-pravartanaih/ nasti yatra sukham duhkham na dveso napi matsarah// samah sarvesu bhutesu sa santah prathito rasah/ For mention of nirveda, see verse 16. 179 Chapter 31, verse 11 b- daridry-esta-vinase ca nirvedo nama jayate/ 180 Chapter 34, verse 17 b- trailokasy-anukaranam nrtte devi pratisthitam/

188 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Visnu then killed the demons and imparted the dance, thus created by him, to Brahma. The latter, in his turn, imparted it to Rudra; and Rudra worshipped Visnu with it. Praise of worshipping deities with dance; denouncement of the use of dance for earning one's livelihood. Benefits of dancing, as mentioned in verses 30 b-31 of Chapter 34- isvaranam vilasam tu cartanam duhkha nasanam/ mudhanam upadesam tat strinam saubhagya-vardhanam// santikam paustikam kamyam vasudevena nirmitam//Chaps. 35-43-Markandeya's speech on Citrasutra (i. e. the art of painting) 181.-First invention of the art of painting by Narayana, who created Urvasi after painting her figure on the surface of the earth with the juice of a sahakara tree and taught this new art to Visvakarman; close relation of painting with dancing; classification of males into hamsa, bhadra, malavya, rucaka and sasaka, and the description and measurement of the different parts of their body; division of females into five classes; description of the method of wall-painting; preparation of dyes; classification of paintings into satya, vainika, nagara and misra; peculiarities, in dress etc., of different deities, demons, human beings, prostitutes, warriors and others; representation of the sky, mountains, woods, water, seasons, evening, darkness etc., as well as of the nine Rasas (including Santa) through painting; selection of places where pictures representing the different sentiments may be placed; 183 types of pictures to be kept in houses, palaces etc.; praise of painting; relation of painting with clay-modelling. [ Chapter 43 ends with the words 'samaptam citrasutram'. ] 181 On this highly interesting section see Stella Kramrisch in Calcutta Review, February 1924, pp. 331 ff., and Journal of the Department of Letters (Calcutta University), Vol. XI, 1924. 182 Chapter 43, verses 11-13- srngara-hasya-santyakha lekhaniya grhesu te// para-sesa na kartavya kadacid api kasyacit/ deva-vesmani kartavya rasah sarve nrpalaye!/ raja-vesmani no karya rajnam vasa-grhesu te/ sabha-vesmasu kartavya rajnam sarva-rasa grhe//

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 189 Chaps. 44-85-Markandeya's speech on the construction of images of deities.-Characteristics of images of the Triad (trimurti) Brahma, Visnu and Rudra (chap. 44). Construction of a lotus with gold, silver, copper or brass for worshipping the intended deity (chap. 45). Causes and benefits of image-worship (chap. 46, verses 1-6). Description, and occasional explanation, of the images of Brahma, Visnu (having four faces and eight hands), Mahesvara (having five faces and ten hands), the two Nasatyas, Indra-and-Saci (who are said to be the same as Visnu and Laksmi respectively), Yama (who is accompanied by Citragupta and Kala and is the same as Samkarsana), Varuna (with Ganga and Yamuna at his sides), Dhanada (i.e. Kuvera), Garuda, Tala, Makara, Siva (having one face and four hands and with Parvati at his side), Agni-and-Svaha, Virupaksa, Vayu-and-Siva, Bhairava, Visnu (having one face and two hands), Mahi (the Earth, having four hands and being attended with four quarter-elephants), Gagana (the Sky, having two hands and holding the sun and the moon in them), Brahma-and-Savitri, Sarasvati (having four hands), Ananta (having four hands and numerous hoods and holding the earth on the middlemost hood), Tumburu (with Jaya and Vijaya on his right side and with Jayanti and Aparajita on his left), Surya (the Sun, who has four hands and beautiful beards and wears a coat and a girdle called 'aviyanga',188 and who is lion-bannered and is attended by Dandin and Pingala, as well as either by his four sons named Revanta, Yama, Vaivasvata Manu and Savarni Manu and his four wives Rajni, Riksubha, Chaya and Suvarcasa or by the other planets), Candra (the Moon)," the Planets, Manus, Kumara (and his other forms, viz., Skanda, Visakha and Guha), Bhadrakali (having eighteen hands and mounting a chariot drawn by four lions), Brahma (mounted on a swan), Vinayaka (having four hands and the head of an elephant), Visvakarman (having two hands and carrying a samdamsa in one of them), Vasus, Visvedevas, Rudras, Sadhyas, Adityas, Maruts, multifarious divine and semi- 184 183 'Aviyanga' (or 'avyanga') is the name of the girdle originally worn by Magi priests of ancient Persia. In the Avesta it is called Aivyaonghen. 184 For datailed description of the image of the Moon, see chap. 68,

190 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS divine beings (viz., Kasyapa, Kasyapa's wives, Dhruva, Agastya, Bhrgus, Jayanta, Bala, Puskara, Jyotsna, Nalakubara, Manibhadra, Vayu-putra, Soma-suta, Nandin, Virabhadra and Artha; Kamadeva and his four wives; some female deities such as Sarasvati, Varuni, Camunda, Suska, Siva-duti and others; Kala, Jvara, and Dhanvantari; the presiding deities of the individual Vedas, Sadangas, and various other sastras, viz., dharmasastra, itibasa, nrtta-sastra, pancaratra, pasupata etc.), Linga, Vyoman, Nara-and-Narayana (with a fruit-bearing badari tree standing between them), Dharma (having four faces, four hands, four legs, and a white complexion), Nrsimha, Varaha, Hayagriva (having eight hands), Padma-nabha (Visnu), Laksmi (having two hands and being attended with two elephants holding two pitchers), Visvarupa (Hari), Aiduka (representing the universe as well as Brahma, Visnu and Mahesvara), Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, Aniruddha, Matsya, Kurma, Bhargava Rama, Rama Dasarathi and his brothers, Valmiki, the five Pandavas, Draupadi, Devaki, Yasoda, Krsna, Balarama, Rukmini, Satyabhama, Samba and others.-Chaps. 46-85. Chaps. 86-95.-Building of temples.-Description of different types of temples (such as Sarvatobhadra etc.) meant for different deities (chapters 86-88); the architect's selecting, cutting and bringing of wood and stone from forests and mountains respectively for the construction of temples (chapters 89-90); method of preparing bricks (chap. 91); composition of cement (ch. 92); selection and purification of sites for the construction of temples; special marks and flags for the temples of different deities (chapters 93-95). Chaps. 96-117.-Consecration (pratistha) of an image 185 of Visnu. Determination of proper time of consecration. Detailed description of the method of consecration (-initiation of the consecrator; performance of torana-nyasa; preparation of panca-gavya; purification of the image; performance of adhivasa; summoning of the principal deity with his attendants; performance of homa and of the ceremony of 185 In explaining the neccessity of summoning Visnu although he pervades the universe, Markandeya supports image-worship thus:- adau krtva mahabhaga sakare laksa-bandhanam/ tatah samartho bhavati sunye dhyane narottama// Chapter 108, verses 26 b-27 a.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 191 awakening the Bhagavat (bhagavad-vibodhana); bathing and anointing the Bhagavat; offer of various things to the deity; worship of the deity according to Vedic and Sattvata methods; taking out the image in procession. Chaps. 118-125.-Results of, and occasions for, worshipping Visnu's different manifestations 188 and muttering their names; proper time and places¹87 of such worship and muttering. Chaps. 126-225.-Description of various Vratas, viz., Brahimi Pratipad, Trimurti-vrata, Paurusi Pratipad, Prakrti-Purusa-vrata, Nasatya-dvitiya-vrata, Balendu-dvitiya-vrata, Asunya-sayana-dvitiyavrata, Trivikrama-trtiya-vrata (of three varieties), Visnu-trimurti-vrata, Visnu-caturmurti-vrata (of fifteen varieties), Panca-murti-vrata (of four varieties), Sanmurti-vrata, Sapta-murti-vrata, Patala-vrata, Sapta-dvipavrata, Sapta-samudra-vrata, Sapta-saila-vrata, Sapta-loka-vrata, Saptanadi-vrata, Sapta-hrada-vrata, Saptarsi-vrata, Marud-vrata, Surya-vrata (with the mention of the names of those who follow the Sun in the different months), (Saura-)-Saptami-vrata, (Saura-) Rakta-saptami-vrata, Astavasu-vrata, Mahesvarastami-vrata, Parvatastami-vrata, Bhadrakalivrata, Visvedeva-vrata, Angiro-vrata, Dharma-vrata, Rudra-vrata, Bhrgu-vrata, Sadhya-vrata, Dvadasaditya-vrata, Kamadeva-vrata, Dhanavrata, Vayu-vrata, Virupaksa-vrata, Yama-vrata, Mahesvara-vrata, Pitrvrata, Vahni-vrata, Candra-vrata, Paurnamasi-vrata, Varuna-vrata, Sakra-vrata, Brahmakurca-vrata, Mahavrata, Roca-vrata, etc. The deities, to be worshipped in these Vratas, are called the different forms of Visnu. In chapters 215-220 Markandeya reports to Vajra what Pulastya said to Dalbhya about the procedure of some Vratas. These six chapters form a distinct section ending with the words 'samaptah pulastya-dalbhya-samvadah.' 186 Valmiki, Dharma, Brahma, Mahadeva, Indra, Prthu and Divakara also are regarded as Visnu's manifestations.-See chapters 118-121, 187 The names of places include the following:--Puskara, Kalanjara, Sindhu-kula, Kasmira, Karnata, Madra-desa, Pragjyotisa, Daksinapatha, Malaya, Anga, Mulasthana, Gaya, Lohadanda, Vrndavana, Udra ('where Visnu remains as Purusottama'-udresu purusottamam) etc.-See chapters 121 and 125.

192 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Chaps. 223-224 contain the story of Asttavakra, who learnt, from Kuvera and an old woman, about the various Roca-vratas and the unstable nature of women respectively. Chaps. 226-342.-In these chapters, which constitute the Hamsagita, Visnu is said to have assumed the form of Hamsa and spoken the sages on the following topics: W Duties of the four main castes and of the mixed castes. Duties of students and householders. Selection of food 188 (bhaksyabhaksya). Purification of things (dravya-suddhi). Impurity caused by birth, death and miscarriage. Good manners and customs. Sacraments. Various prescriptions and prohibitions. Sins and expiations. Results of actions. -Chaps. 227-237. [None of these chapters contains anything striking. They consist mainly of verses derived from the Manu-smrti, Yajnavalkya-smrti, Parasara-smrti etc.] Various unfavourable symptoms (arista) of approaching death. Chapter 238. Evils of nescience (ajnana), sins, passion, overjoy, self-conceit, intoxication, greed, anger, atheism, egotism, want of purity, violation of acara, telling lies (except in some special cases), and practice of himsa (except in certain special cases).-Chaps. 239-252. Results of various sinful acts.- Chapter 253. Benefits of the following:-acquirement of knowledge (jnana), practice of dharma, service to superiors, study of sacred books (viz., the Vedas, Vedangas, Upavedas, Samkhya, Yoga, Pancaratra, Pasupata, Purana etc.), practice of brahmacarya, and begetting of sons.-Chaps. 254-259. Praise of reputation (kirti), fame (yasah), sacrifice (yajna), good conduct (sila), self-control, truth, religious austerity, bravery (especially in war), ahimsa, tolerance (ksama), gratitude, good manners and customs, purity (sauca), visit to holy places, fasting, mental purity, sraddha, and bath.-Chaps. 260-277. 188 Food offered by rangavatarins, pasandas, cikitsa-jivakas, ayudha-jivins, sastra-vikrayakarins, caila-dhavakas and others is not eatable.- Chapter 230, verses Iff.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 193 Method and praise of muttering the mantra, performance of pranayama, and practice of pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi. -Chaps. 278-284. Praise of perseverance (vyavasaya) and determination (samkalpa), which are at the root of final emancipation.-Chaps, 285-286. Praise and results of performing boma, worshipping deities with the offer of various things and rendering service to them, offering different articles to the Pitts, performing the rites of hospitality to guests, serving Brahmins and cows, showing compassion, becoming courteous, speaking sweet words, and being enterprising.-Chaps. 287-295. Praise and results of digging wells, tanks etc., planting trees, plants and creepers, making embankments and well-furnished prapas (i. e. places for distributing water to travellers), and serving and helping the travellers in various ways.-Chaps. 296-298. Classification of wealth into (a) white (sukla), (b) variegated (sabala) and (c) black (krsna), and the ways of earning these different kinds of wealth.- Chapter 299. Praise of donation. Proper time, place 189 and recipients (who are Brahmins in most cases).- Chapter 300. Certain rules about receiving gifts; deities presiding over the different kinds of gifts; methods of receiving these gifts.- Chapter 301. Results of assuring safety (abhaya-dana) under different circumstances.- Chapter 302. Results and praise of vidya-dana, 100 kanya-dana (according to the 189 The names of places, as specially mentioned in verses 25-29, are the following:-Puskara, Prayaga, Prabhasa, Naimisa, Dharmaranya, Gaya, Amarakantaka, Gangadvara, Kusavarta, Bilvaka, Nila-parvata, Kanakhala, Saligrama, Varanasi, Sarasvati, Ganga-sagara-sangama, Sindu-sagara-sandhi, Tritakupa, Plaksa-prasravana, Camasonmajjana, Mahalaya, Kedara, Bhrgutunga, Manasa, Uttara-manasa and Dadhi-tirtha. 190 In connection with vidya-dana, special mention has been made of teaching the Vedas, Upavedas, Vedangas, Dharma-sastras, Siddhantas and other Sastras, the different kinds of arts (silpa), and dhanurveda.- Chapter 303. 25

194 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Brahma, Daiva and Prajapatya forms), bhumi-dana,11 go-mahisa-dana, dadhi-dugdhadi-dana, and kapila-dana.-Chaps. 303-306. Description and praise of ghrta-dhenu-dana, tila-dhenu-dana and jala-dhenu-dana.-Chaps. 307-309. Results and praise of suvarna-rupyadi-dana, mukta-marakatavaiduryadi-dana, sayyasanadi-vividha-vastu-dana, dasa-dasi-dana, hastyasvostra-gardabhadi-dana, vastra-dana,192 sirastrana-hastatrana-padatra- nadi-dana, dhanya¹³-yava-godhuma-tila-mudgadi-dana, guda-phanitadidana, and anna-dana.-Chaps. 310-315. Results of making gifts to to different different times.-Chaps. 316-319. types of recipients and at Results of taking one meal a day and of observing fast for one day or more.- Chapter 320. Names of different regions (loka) attainable by those who perform different kinds of pious acts.- Chapter321. Duties of devoted wives.- Chapter 322. Duties of kings.-Appointment of ministers and other officers; construction of well-provided forts; marriage; appointment of officers (viz., gramadhipa, dasa-gramadhipa, sata-gramadhipa and desesvara) for carrying on rural administration; levying of taxes; 194 and so on. - Chapter 323. Treatment of vyavabara (administration of justice) under the following heads:- constitution of the court of justice; laws about summoning the accused and placing him under legal restraint; method of recording a plaint; legal procedure; examination of witnesses; laws about mortgage, gifts etc.; different kinds of evidence (viz., saksin, 191 Land has been classified into saka-bhumi, arama-bhumi, udyana-bhumi, akara-bhumi, grha-bhumi etc.-See Chapter 304. 192 In chap. 313 clothes have been classified, according to their materials, into karpasika, sa-roma, avika, ksauma, kusa-nirmita, kauseya, krimija, mrgalomika, valkalaja, and sumera-kadaly-adi-nirmita, People are prohibitted from giving to Brahmins clothes coloured blue or red. - Chapter 313, verses 3 and 11. 193 In chap. 314 there is mention of different kinds of rice, viz., rakta-sali (which is said to be the best of all), kalama, mahasali, kastha-sali, vrihi, syamaka, suka-dhanya etc. 194 For the rates of taxes see chap. 323, verses 38-44.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 195 lekhya, bhoga, and divya); comparative strength of title and possession; method of writing a document (lekbya); qualification of witnesses; description of the different kinds of ordeals; 195 recognition of the eight forms of marriage; 196 legal position of the twelve kinds of sons (viz., aurasa, putrika-putra, ksetraja, paunarbhava, kanina, sahodha, gudhotpanna, dattaka, krita, apaviddha, upagata and sudraputra); laws of partition and inheritance, and of debt, mortgage and deposit; laws about joint-stock companies; settlement of disputes between masters and servants; laws about transgression of compact, about purchase and sale, about guilds and corporate bodies, and about boundary disputes; determination of the nature of punishment and 195 In chap. 328 there is mention of eight kinds of ordealskosam dhatam visan cagnim udakam tapta-masakam/ phalam ca tandulam caiva divyany astau vidur budhah// (verse 6). 196 The following lines (on the different forms of marriage, remarriage of married girls, etc.) are interesting.prajapatyas tatha daivo brahmas capi subhas trayah// gandharvo raksasas caiva madhyamau parikirtitau/ asuras caiva paisaca arsas caiva tathadhamah// na te karyah prayatnena kadacid api kenacit/ asurasya tatharsasya viseso naiva vidyate// sulkam eva tato jneyam alpam va yadi va bahu/ prani-vikrayinah sarve narakam yanti manavah// visesena ca yah putram vikrinati svakam narah/ narake vasatim tasya bahun abda-ganan viduh// mrte bhartari ya kanya kevalam hasta-dusita/ sa ced aksata-yonih syat punah samskaram arhati// ity evam kecid icchanti na tan mama matam dvijah/ saptame hi pade vrtte nanyam arhati sa patim// vaca datta tu ya kanya mautrais caiva na samskrta/ anyasya sa bhaved deya sati bhartari dosini// naste mrte pravrajite klibe 'tha patite patau/ pancasv apatsu narinam patir anyo vidhiyate// Chapter 329, verses 6 b-14. trini varsany upasita kumary rtumati sati ukta-kalat param kanya vindate sadrsam patim//. Chapter 329, verse 28. The verse 'naste mrte pravrajite', as occurring in Visnudharmottara H. 87, 11, reads 'patite 'patau',

196 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS the amounts of fine in different kinds of crimes (viz., theft, murder, adultery, drinking of wine, killing of lower animals, defamation, criminal assault, etc.).-Chaps. 324-338 [Chaps. 324-338 abound in verses taken from the Vyavaharasection of the Yajnavalkya-smrti. Some of the verses of these chapters have been taken from the Dharma sastras of Manu, Narada, Parasara and others.] Duties of vanaprasthas and yatis.-Chaps. 339-340. [These two chapters contain verses of the Manu-smrti; and the second has a few metrical lines from the Upanisads.] Results of building new Visnu-temples or repairing old ones, constructing images of Visnu, serving Visnu in various ways, singing his praise, and offering to him various things (including female slaves and dancing girls).- Chapter 341. The sages' eulogy of Visnu, and their vision of the universe in the latter's body. Praise of the Hamsa-gita.- Chapter 342. [The colophon of chap. 342 is followed by the words 'hamsa-gita samapta.'] Chaps. 343-348.-In glorifying Visnu as extremely kind to his devotees, Markandeya narrates the stories of (a) Visnu's favour to Garuda, although the latter, being offended with the former for assuring safety to a Naga named Sumukha, boasted of his own capacity and reproached Visnu as ungrateful, (b) Visnu's birth as Vamana to recover Indra's kingdom from Bali, and (c) king Vasu Uparicara's self-protection in the nether world by means of the Aparajita Vidya which was instructed to him by Brhaspati, and his winning of Visnu's favour. In these stories there are eulogies of Visnu and Garuda and a description of the Vaisnavi Aparajita Vidya. of Chaps. 349-354.-Glorification of Visnu by means of the stories (a) Narada, who went to Sveta-dvipa in accordance with the advice of Nara and Narayana, pleased Vasudeva there by eulogising him and by taking to ekanta-bhava, learnt from him about thousands of his past and future manifestations, and won Vasudeva's favour by zeal-

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 197 ously worshipping him in accordance with the method described to him by Nara and Narayana (chapters 349-353), and (b) a Sattvata named Visvaksena, who, being 'ekanta-bhavopagata', violated the order of a Mahesvara and worshipped Narasimha, instead of Siva, in a Siva-linga, and whose life was saved from the hands of the Mahesvara by Visnu himself who came out of the Sivalinga by assuming the form of Narasimha (chap. 354). Chapter 355. The hymn (called Lingasphota) that was recited by Visvaksena. Conclusion of the Visnudharmottara. From the summary of the contents given above it is evident that the Visnudharmottara is an ambitious work containing chapters on multifarious subjects. But it does not claim originality in all matters. There are indications which show that this work has more the character of a compilation than that of an original work. 197 It contains summaries of, and extracts and isolated verses from, some of the early works of the different branches of Sanskrit literature. For instance, it widely utilises the Ramayana and incorporates a large number of verses from the Mahabharata,198 the Bhagavad-gita¹99 and the Upanisads. 300 In its chapters on astronomy and astrology, it has verses from the works 197 For instance, see Visnudharmottara I. 1. 16 tasmat tvam raja-sardula prastum arho dvijottaman/ vaisnavan vividhan dharman sarahasyan sasamgrahan|| 198 For example, Visnudharmottara III. 343-355 are based on the Narayaniya section of the Santi-parvan of the Mahabharata; the verse 'samkhyam yogam pancaratram' (Visnudharmottara I. 74. 34 and II. 22. 133) is much the same as Mahabharata XII. 349. 1 and 64; and so on. 199 For verses borrowed from the Bhagavad-gita see Visnudharmottara I. 38. 10, 52. 5 b-7 a, 122, 9 b-10 a, 171. 10-11, 172. 8, 20 and 33. and 190, 14.15; II. 74. 23, 78. 28-34, and 82. 33; and so on. 200 Visnudharmottara III. 340.40 = Svetasvataropanisad 3.20=Kathopanisad 1.2.20, " III. 340.41 = " 3.8 " III. 340.42 b-43 a= " 3.9 " III. 340.43 b-c= " 4.6 Mundakopanisad 3.1.1. etc. etc.

198 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS of Garga, Vrddha-garga, Parasara and Brhaspati. 201 In Visnudharmottara II. 154 (verses 18 and 22) Garga is said to have instructed king Vasu on the method of worshipping the Sakra-dhvaja (banner of Indra); in Visnudharmottara II. 134-144 Vrddha-garga speaks to Atri on various kinds of omens; and in Visnudharmottara II. 159-161 Parasara is said to have spoken to Galava on the mantras of chatra, asva etc. as well as on Ghrta-kambala-santi. Visnudharmottara II. 166-174, which constitute a distinct section called 'Paitamaha-siddhanta' and have Brahma and Bhrgu as the interlocutors, most probably give the summary of a bigger work of some similar title. Visnudharmottara III. 86-95 (on the building of temples) are said to have been based on an earlier work ascribed to Pitamaha (Brahma). 202 In its sections on acara, vyavahara and prayascitta, the Visnudharmottara refers to Manu as a law-giver on several occasions 203 and utilises the language and contents chiefly of the Manu-smrti,2 204 201 For instance, the verse 'mayura-candrikabho va', which Vallalasena found in his Manuscript of the Visnudharmottara, occurred in the work of Garga (see Adbhutasagara, p. 17), and Visnudharmottara 1. 85. 27 b-28 a (udayastamane bhanoh etc.) greatly resembled a verse of Garga (see Adbhutasagara, pp. 290-1); Visnudharmottara II, 136. 1, 135. 6 a and 7 a, 137. 5 b-6 a, 11 a, 7 a, 6 b and 7 b-8 a, and 141. 1 occurred in the work of Vrddha-garga (see Adbhutasagara, pp. 416, 427, 429, 441, 442-3, 443. 444 and 563); Visnudharmottara I. 85. 34 b-35ª, 26 b-27 a, 33 b-34 a, and 48 b-49 a, and III. 238, 2, 31, 27, 26, 28, 19 and 32 occurred in the work or works of Parasara (see Adbhutasagara, pp. 66, 86, 90, 101,516, 517, 526, 541 and 551); Visnudharmottara II. 135. 6 a and 7ª, 156. 1-2 and 5, 137.7 a and 6 b, 141. 1, and 134. 14-26 occurred in the work of Brhaspati (see Adbhutasagara, pp. 427, 429, 437. 442-3, 443. 563 and 743-4); and so on. 202 Visnudharmottara III. 86. 139 prasada-laksanam idam kathitam samasad alokya purva-caritam hi pitamahoktam/ sastram hitaya nara-sattama manusanam dharyam tvaya tad atiyatna-parena nityam// 203 Visnudharmottara II. 72. 43 manur abravit (=Manu-smrti 8. 242). " II. 72. 48 ......iti svayambhuvo'bravit, " II. 72. 97-..............manur abravit (=Manu-smrti 8, 339). 204 The Visnudharmottara (especially II. 61-131 and III. 226-342) has incorporated a large number of verses from chapters, 2 ff. of the Manu-smrti, as the following list will indicate.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 206 199 Yajnavalkya-smrti, 205 Narada-smrti," 206 Visnu-smrti 207 and Parasarasmrti. 208 It also seems to have incorporated verses from the Smrti-works Visnudharmottara II. 24.3 II. 26.7 II. 61,2 a, 4 a II. 61.42 a, 42 b- 45,46-48 II. 61.62-63 a, 64 b-67 etc. II. 65.37 II. 65.43 b, 44 a, 45, 46-47. 48-49, 50-51, 52-53, and so on II. 70.6 II. 70.8, 14 b-15 a and so on II. 72'5, 6-11, 12-13 and so on 205 Visnudharmottara II. 72. 180 b II. 72. 182 a II. 72. 182 b } Manu-smrti = 7.55. == 2.52. = 7.115 a, 116 a. 8.36 a, 30-33ª, 27-29. = 7.131 b-132, 133 b-136. etc. - 8.26. 7.38 a, 39 a, 40, 89-90, Manu-Smrti 4.209 b-211 a, Visnudh, II. 73.2 II. 73.7-12 = 11.45. II. 73.14 etc. II. 74.1, 3-11, 13-21 II. 75,2 a, 25 a-b II. 79.1 b-2 a } 212 a, 213-214 a, 216 b, 214 b. = 4.215 ctc, = 11.247-265. - 43-44, II. 85.11, 19 = 82-83, 87-88, II. 86.1, 7 and so on. II. 87.15 - 8.128 = 7.25, 18 and so on. II. 130.3-32 5.59 a, 103. 5.123. 2.31, 36. - 2.69, 52. - 3.21. = 6.1-28 a, 29 b-31. II. 131.1-22, 2 = 6.33-61, 63-97 a. 24-63 etc. III. 228.1 8.138, 34-35, and so 27-32, III. 230,12 b-14 III. 232, 1 a, 2 b on. Yajnavalkya-smrti -II. 235ª. _cf. II. 224 a. -cf. II.239 a.(Yajnavalkya-smrti reads 'tripano damah'). etc. Visnudh, etc. = 2.69. 5.5 a, 6 a, 5 b, 7. = 5.59 a, 61 b. etc. Yajnavalkya-smrti II. 105.2-8 a,10 b-11 a,)=I. 271-288 a, 10 a, 12 b-13 a, 12 a, III. 9 b,14-16,17 b-18 b, 19-22,23,24-25. etc. 231.3 a, 4 b-5 a, 6 b-7 289 b-290 a, 191-2. etc. =I. 188 a, 114, 186-7 a. 4 b-52, } II. 72.183,184,185,2=II.240,279.282, III. 232. 6 b-7 a 186-7, 188,189.) 295-6,303,306. Narada-smrti " etc. III. 23. etc. Narada-smrti =4.90. = 4.92. =4.149-150, 206 Visnudharmottara III. 324. 3 - - 1.2, Visnudharmottara III, 325. 3 " " " " " " 13 b 14 b-17 a 34 b-35 a - :1.49 a. " 4 =1.52-55 a. III. 327. 1-4 a =4.35 b-36 a. 151 b-152. " 45 III. =3.18. III. 328. 67 b-68 a =4.337. 325. 1 =4.84. " "> 69 =4.338. 2 " " = 4.85. etc, etc. 207 For instance, Visnudharmottara I. 142. 13 b-14 a (etani sraddha-kalani etc.) is the same as Visnu-smrti 76. 2 (etams tu sraddha-kalan vai etc.). For connections between the Visnudharmottara and the Visnu-smrti as regards sraddha, see W. Caland, Altindischer Ahnenkult, Leyden 1893, pp. 68 and 112. Cf. also Abegg, Der Pretakalpa, pp. 5 ff. 208 Paragara-smrti 4. 30 (naste mrte pravrajite etc.) is the same as Visnudharmottara

200 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS of Devala 209 and Brhaspati, 210 which are now lost. Visnudharmottara III. large 17-31 are clearly based on Bharata's Natya-sastra, from which a number of verses has been retained in these chapters. 211 Similarly, the chapters on citra-sutra, 212 ayurveda, basti-cikitsa, asva-cikitsa etc. must have been based on older works. In its chapters on alankara the Visnudharmottara often refers to the opinions of ancient writers on poetics (puratana). 213 The stories of Lalitika (or Lalita), Sambarayani and gajendra-mosana in Visnudharmottara I, chapters 167 (verses 2 ff.), 175-191 and 192-194 are undoubtedly derived from the same as given in Visnudharma, chapters 32, 27 and 67 respectively. In narrating these stories the Visnudharmottara not only retains a large number of verses of the Visnudharma but also introduces innovations not found in the II. 87. 11 and III. 329. 14; Parasara-smrti 3. 39 (anatham brahmanam pretam etc.) is the same as Visnudharmottara II. 76. 2; and so on, 209 For verses common to the Visnudharmottara and the Devala-smrti, see Caturvarga-cintamani, III. ii. pp. 95-96. 210 For instance, the verse 'ekadasy astami sasthi' is ascribed to Brhaspati in Smrti-candrika, IV, p. 47 but to the Visnudharmottara in Kalanirnaya, pp. 190 and 300; the line 'brahmanam kesavam sambhum' is ascribed to Brhaspati and the Visnudharmottara in the Dacca University Manuscripts of Raghunandana's Ahnikatattva; and so on. Visnudharmottara Natya-sastra III. 24.1 a,2 a,3 b,5 a=8.16 b,20 a, 22 a,24 a. III. 27.2 b-3 a, 5 b-6 a,=23.5, 10,92 b-93 a, 2 II Visnudharmottara III. 24.6-7 a etc, 18 b-19 a, 21-23 a. 102 b-104, 97 b, Natya-sastra =8,26 a, 25 b, 27 a, III. 25.1-2 etc. =8.38-39. 24 b-25 a, 22 99 a, 108. etc. etc. III. 29.36, 37 a " " 3-4 -cf. 8.40-41. etc. 13.13, 20 a. etc. " " >> 5 a, 5 b, 6 b 8.42 b, 44 b, 46 a. III. 30.2 b-3 a, 4 b-8 a=6.39, 4²-45. etc. etc. etc. etc. III, 26. 1-3 " >> 4 9.4-5 and 6 b-72, _cf. 9.8 a. III. 31.2, 3, 11 b 7.10, 9, 28 a. " 14 a - - " " 5-9 a, 10 9.8 b-12, 14 a, 15 a. " "" 54-56 -cf. 7.33 a. =6.77-83 a, etc. etc. etc. etc. Visnudharmottara III. 17-31 may be used for solving the textual problems relating to the Natya-sastra. 212 The 'citra-sutra' is mentioned in Damodaragupta's Kuttanimata, verse 123. 213 Visnudharmottara III. 14. 7, 12 and 15.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 201 latter. For instance, it identifies the river Devika with Uma, wife of Hara, 214 elaborates Sambarayani's account with the mention of the names of many of Visnu's manifestations, and says that two Gandharvas named Haha and Huhu were transformed into the elephant and the crocodile by Devala's curse. So, there is no doubt that the Visnudharmottara gives the later versions of these stories. It is probable that Visnudharmottara I, chapters 169-170 (on Mandhatr's activities in his previous birth as a Sudra) and 196 (on the Visnu-panjara-stotra) also are based on Visnudharma, chapters 82 and 69 respectively. It is needless to multiply examples. It is to be noted that the Visnudharmottara does not utilise Varahamihira's Brhatsamhita, Bhamaha's Kavyalamkara, Dandin's Kavyadarsa, or any other work written later than 500 A. D. and that although the Visnudharmottara is indebted to earlier authorities for many of its materials, it has not failed to improve considerably the borrowed portions by innovations of its own. For instance, in his Adbhutasagara 315 Vallalasena quotes from the works of Garga, Vrddha-garga, Parasara and Brhaspati some verses which do not agree, as regards contents, with those of the Visnudharmottara and the principles of dramaturgy, as laid down in the Visnudharmottara, differ on some points from those of the Natya-sastra. upon Of the various types of works known to it, the Visnudharmottara gives us valuable information. It speaks of 'nrtya-sastra', 'gita-sastra', 'kala-sastra', 216 218 'dhanurveda', 'hastyayurveda', 'asvayurveda', 'vrksayurveda', 'phala-veda',218 suda-sastra 219 etc. and mentions the four Vedas, the Vedangas, 21 'the Bharata (i.e. the Mahabharata) com- 217 214 Visnudharmottara I. 167. 15-18, and 207. 55-56. 215 See Adbhutasagara, pp. 98, 236, 410, 429, 471, 559-560. 216 Visnudharmottara III. 73. 49. 217 Ibid., II, 91, 11; III. 297. 18. 'Vrksayurveda' is mentioned in Damodaragupta's Kuttanimata, verse 123. 218 Visnudharmottara III. 73. 47. 219 Ibid., II. 24. 23. 'Suda-sastra' is also mentioned in Kuttanimata, verse 123. 220 221 Visnudharmottara I. 74. 29-30; II. 22. 129-130; and so on. Ibid., I. 74. 33; II. 22. 131-2. 26

202 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS • 232 223 posed by Dvaipayana', """ the Ramayana of Valmiki, as the scriptures of the Pancaratras and the Pasupatas, 224 a Sutra work (on hasti-cikitsa) written by Lomapada, king of Anga, 225 and the Niti-sastras of Brhaspati and Usanas.226 Hence there is little doubt about the fact that the Sanskrit literature became enriched by various types of works even before the time of composition of the Visnudharmottara. A large number of chapters is found common to the Visnudharmottara and the Matsya-purana, as the following list will show. Visnudharmottara Matsya-purana Visnudharmottara Matsya-purana 1. 111-119 =Chaps. 195-203 II. 39 = Chapter 212. respectively. II. 40 I. == II. 41 145. 1-2,4 204. 2-3, 5. I. 146. 41 b-59=207. 24 b-41. I. 148-152 =Chaps. 115-119 respectively. I. 153; 154. 1-6 a, 7= Chapter 120. =179. 2 ff. II. 66-70 =213. 1-13, 17-18. = Chapter 214. = Chaps. 221-225 respectively. II. 71. 1-3 =226. : 226. 1-3. II. 72.17 b-200= Chapter 227. II. 133-140=Chaps. 228-235 respectively. II. 142-144-Chaps. 236-238 I. 226 II. 24-28 == Chaps. 215-219 respectively. II. 36 =208.3-21. respectively. II. 37 = Chaps. 202-210. II. 163 = Chapter 240. II. 38 =211. 1-13, 28. That as regards these common chapters the Matsya-purana is the borrower, can be proved definitely by a number of evidences, some of which are given below. (i) The contents of Visnudharmottara I. 129-156 are follows: -Chaps. 129-137 deal with Pururavas's love for Urvasi, chapters 138-145 with sraddha and the Pitrs, chapters 146 and 147 with vrsa-laksana and vrsotsarga respectively, and chapters 148-156 with Pururavas's penance 222 Ibid., I. 74. 23-28; III. 351. 49. 223 Ibid., I. 74. 37-39 (valmikina tu racitam.../ ramakhyanam...//); I. 81. 26; III. 351. 48 (maya valmikina karyam kavyam ramayanam tatha). 224 Ibid., I. 74. 34; II. 22, 133; III. 73. 48; III. 257, 4. 225 Ibid., I. 253-34-35- 226 Ibid., II. 6. 2.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 203 in his previous birth for attaining extraordinary physical beauty. Of these, the last group of chapters (i.e. chapters 148-156) begins thus: - vajra uvaca- caritam budha-putrasya markandeya maya srutam/ srutah sraddha-vidhih punyah sarva-papa-pranasanah//, dhenvah prasuyamanayah phalam dane tatha srutam/ krsnajina-pradanam ca vrsotsargas tathaiva ca// srutva rupam narendrasya budha-putrasya bhargava/ kautuhalam samutpannam tan mamacaksva prcchatah// (chap. 148, verses 1-3). In these verses there is clear reference to the contents of chapters 129-137 (on the story of Pururavas, son of Budha), chapters 138-145 (on sraddha), chapters 146-147 (on vrsa-laksana and vrsotsarga), and chap. 130 (verses 3 ff., in which Pururavas is said to have possessed uncommon physical beauty). Though in the printed edition of the Visnudharmottara there is no chapter or chapters on 'prasuyamanadhenu-dana' and 'krsnajina-dana', this work was not originally bereft of chapters on these topics. In his Danasagara, pp. 531-532 Vallalasena ascribes to the 'Visnudharmottara' twenty-one metrical lines which deal with krsnajina-dana and all of which occur in Matsya-purana, chap. 206. In his Caturvarga-cintamani, I, pp. 704-5 and 705-7 Hemadri also ascribes to the Visnudharmottara' two complete chapters on 'madhyama-krsnajina-dana' and 'maha-krsnajina-dana' respectively. The Matsya-purana, on the other hand, contains only the story of Pururavas's penance in his previous birth in chapters 115-120 (which practically the same as Visnudharmottara I, chapters 148-153 and verses 1-7 of chap. 154) and deals with prasuyamana-dhenu-dana, krsnajinadana and vrsa-laksana as late as in chapters 205, 206 and 207 respectively, but it does not contain any chapter on vrsotsarga. Yet the opening verses of chap. 115 are the same as those of Visnudharmottara I. 148 quoted above. It is also to be noted that although in the Matsya-purana the story of Pururavas's love affairs does not immediately precede the story of his penance in his previous birth but occurs very briefly in chap. 24 and sraddha is dealt with in chapters 11-22, the opening verses of chap. 115 do not refer to the contents of the intervening chapters (25-114).

204 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS The Matsya-purana describes the characteristics of bulls (vrsa-laksana) fully in the entire chap. 207, but this topic is dealt with partially in in Visnudharmottara I. 146. 41 b-59 (which are the same as Mat, 207. 24 b- 41). Moreover, in the Visnudharmottara this topic is begun abruptly with the line 'rsabhah sa samudrakhyah satatam kula-vardhanah (which really forms the second half of the verse 'svetam tu jatharam yasya bhavet prstham ca gopatch/rsabhah sa samudrakhyah satatam kula-vardhanah// as found in Matsya-purana 207. 24). But this abrupt beginning and incomplete treatment of the above-mentioned topic in the Visnudharmottara should not be taken to prove that the Visnudharmottara borrowed its verses from the Matsya-purana As a matter of fact, the original Visnudharmottara contained all those verses on vrsalaksana which are now found in Matsya-purana, chap. 207. In his Danasagara, p. 115 Vallalasena ascribes to the Visnudharmottara' three verses on vrsa-laksana which do not occur in Visnudharmottara I. 148 but are the same as Matsya-purana 207. 13-15. (ii) The story of Pururavas in Matsya-purana, chapters 115-120 ends abruptly, whereas in the Visnudharmottara it is continued through a few more chapters to its logical conclusion. (iii) In Matsya-purana, chap. 195 (which is practically the same Visnudharmottara I. 111), the second verse runs as follows: mahadevena sayah saptah svayambhuve 'ntare/ tesam vaivasvate prapte sambhavam mama kirtaya// as This verse, as occurring in the Matsya-purana, has no preceding story or statement to refer to, whereas in the Visnudharmottara it occurs in chap. 111 of Khanda I and refers to Visnudharmottara I. 110. 28. (iv) A textual comparison betweeen the Visnudharmottara and the Matsya-p, shows that the latter work has adapted the abovementioned chapters of the Visnudharmottara to its own interlocutors often by using unsuitable words. For instance, for Visnudharmottara I. 148.8 (pururava madrapatih karmana kena bhargava/babhuva karmana kena kurupas ca tatha dvija //), Matsya-purana 115.9 reads 'pururava madrapatih... parthivah/babhuva ...... virupas caiva sutaja||'; in Visnudharmottara II. 24. 62 Puskara addresses Bhargava Rama as 'manuja-sardula' ('a tiger among the descendants of Manu, i.e. among men'), and this word ('manuja- sardula'), though not applicable to Manu himself, has been retained

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 205 in Matsya-purana, chap. 215 (verse 88) in which Matsya speaks to Manu; and so on. (v) The story of Savitri in Visnudharmottara II. 36-41 naturally follows chapters 33-35 (on the conduct and duties of chaste women, and the treatment they deserve from the king). But the Matsya-purana, though containing this story in chapters 208-214, has no chapters corresponding to chapters 33-35 of the Visnudharmottara. Moreover, in chapters 208- 214 the Matsya-purana has a large number of additional verses which are not found in the Visnudharmottara. The above evidences are perhaps sufficient to show that the Matsya-purana borrowed the above-mentioned chapters from the Visnudharmottara. We shall now try to determine the date of composition of the Visnudharmottara. • 229 This work is quite familiar with the Greek terms 'hibuka', 'kendra', 'lipta', 'sunapha' etc. 227 and mentions 'hora', 228 'dreskana',2 228 and the names of the rasis 230 and week-days 231 in several places. By its mention of Mulasthana 232 as a place of Sun-worship as a place of Sun-worship as well as of the girdle called 'aviyanga', 233 worn by the Sun-worshippers, it betrays 227 See Visnudharmottara II, 167 ff. 228 Visnudharmottara I. 83. 47 ff.; II. 168 ff.; III. 96. 97; and so on, The occurrence of the term hora in two verses quoted by Varahamihira from Garga shows that it came to be used by the Indians much earlier than the sixth century A.D., but there is no evidence to prove that it was used by them earlier than the end of the first century A.D. 229 Visnudharmottara II. 167 ff.; III. 96. 97. 230 Visnudharmottara I. 72, 11, 73. 8 ff., 84. 1 ff., and 94. 6 ff.; II. 18.11; II, 167 ff,; III. 319. 38 ff.; and so on. The total absence of the term rasi in all early works down to the time of the Yajnavalkya-smrti, tends to show that the Indians were not familiar with the rasis earlier than the second century A.D. 231 Visnudharmottara I. 59. 2-5, and 60. 5; II. 47. 4, 50. 68, and 52. 84 and 124; III. 317. 16 ff.; and so on. The earliest dated mention of a week-day has been traced in the Eran inscription of 484 A.D. (See Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions, pp. 88-89). 232 Visnudh, III. 121. 12. 233 Visnudharmottara III, 67. 3.

206 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 285 its knowledge of the Persian elements in the method of worshipping the Sun. It utilises, as we have already seen, the language and contents of the Upansads, Mahabharata, Bhagavad-gita, Bharata's Natya- sastra, the astronomical works of Garga, Vrddha-garga, Parasara and Brhaspati, the Dharmasastras of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Narada and Parasara, and the Visnudharma. By its description of 'Purana' as consisting of four Padas 34 it points definitely to the Vayu-purana 335 which only claims to consist of, and is practically divided into, four Padas, viz., Prakriya, Upodghata, Anusanga and Upasamhara. In the story of Pururavas and Urvasi, as given in chapters 129-137 of Khanda I, it clearly betrays the influence of Kalidasa's Vikramorvasiya.23 Visnudharmottara I. 208 contains the description of the hurry and eagerness of women of Rajagrha to have a glance at Bharata when the latter was entering that city. This description bears the unmistakable stamp of the influence of Kalidasa's Raghuvamsa.2 237 Hence the Visnudharmottara cannot be earlier than 400 A.D. Again, the Visnudharmottara has been profusely drawn upon by almost all the Smrti-commentators and Nibandha-writers, viz., BhavaVisnudh. III. 17. 2 b-3 prakriya prathamah padah kathavastu-parigrahah/ upodghatanusangau ca tatha samhara eva ca/ catuspadam hi kathitam puranam bhrgu-nandana// The first two lines are the same as Vayu-purana 4. 13. (The Vayu-p, reads the second line as 'upodghato'nusangas ca upasamhara eva ca'). 235 The Vayu-purana and the Brahmanda-purana were originally the same. 236 The similarity in ideas and expressions between the Visnudharmottara and the Vikramorvasiya will be evident from the following parallel passages. (a) Visnudh, I. 133. 52.-Before leaving Urvasi with Pururavas, Rambha says to the latter : ... ... yatha ceyam sakhi mahyam notkantham kurute subha/ sakhi-janasya svargyasya tatha karyam tvayanagha//. Cf. Vikramorvasiya, Act III-citralekha- saggassa na ukkanthedi taha vaassena kadavvam, .ta jaha iam me piasahi (b) Visnudharmottara I. 135, 26-33 (in which Pururavas vainly enquires for Urvasi to beasts, birds and plants).-Cf. Vikramorvasiya, Act IV. 237 Compare, for instance, Visnudharmottara I. 208. 10-21 a with Raghuvamsa VII. 5-12.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 207 deva, Vijnanesvara, Jimutavahana, Apararka, Aniruddhabhatta, Vallalasena, Halayudha, Devanabhatta, Hemadri, Madanapala, Madhavacarya, Sulapani, Candesvara, Vidyapati, Vacaspati-misra, Govindananda, Srinathacaryacudamani, Gadadhara, Raghunandana and others. Some of these Smrti-writers have made their quotations under the title Visnudharmottara'; some of them (such as Bhavadeva and Vijnanesvara) have done so under the name of 'Markandeya' (the speaker in the Visnudharmottara); and the rest (such as Jimutavahana, Apararka, Devanabhatta, Hemadri and others) have ascribed some of the quoted verses to 238. The verses of 'Markandeya' (the word 'markandeya' being often used in the masculine gender), quoted in the commentaries and Nibandhas, are, except in a very few cases, not found in the present Markandeya-purana The facts that many of the verses ascribed to 'Markandeya' are found in the Visnudharmottara wherein the sage Markandeya is the speaker, that the same verses are sometimes ascribed to the 'Visnudharmottara' in some places (viz., in Kalaviveka, pp. 538 and 539, Caturvarga-cintamani, III. ii. pp. 379-380, and Varsa-kaumudi, p. 103, Tithi-viveka, pp. 6-7; and so on) and to 'Markandeya' in others (viz., in Mitaksara on Yajnavalkya-smrti III, 289, Apararka's com. on the Yajnavalkya-smrti, P. 429, Smrti-candrika, II, p. 620; Smrti-candrika, IV, p. 49, Caturvargacintamani, III. ii. pp. 93 and 116; and so on), and that in some places (viz., in Kalaviveka, p. 265, Haralata pp. 19 and 29, Smrti-candrika, IV, pp. 85-86 and 332, and so on) verses of the Visnudharmottara are quoted with the words 'Visnudharmottare markandeyah', show that 'Markandeya'. to whom these verses are ascribed in the Nibandhas, is, in the great majority of cases, identical with the sage Markandeya, the speaker in the Visnudharmottara. In those cases in which the verses ascribed to 'Markandeya' are not found in the Visnudharmottara, the changes in the text of the latter are to be held responsible. As to the few cases in which the verses of 'Markandeya' are found in the Markandeya-purana, it may be said that due to a confusion created by the similarity between the name of the sage and the title of the Purana, verses of the Markandeya-purana were sometimes wrongly ascribed to 'Markandeya' or vice versa. For instance, the verses 'ekabhaktena naktena' and 'sukla-paksasya purvahne', which are ascribed to the 'Markandeya-purana' in Caturvarga-cintamani, II. i. p. 100 and III. i. p. 320 respectively but are not found in the present Purana of the same title, are ascribed to 'Markandeya' (the word 'markandeya' being used in the musculine gender) in Caturvarga-cintamani III. ii. pp. 176 and 575 respectively. See also Apararka's com. on the Yajnavalkya-smrti, p. 206, Smrticandrika, IV, p. 64, Smrti-tattva, I, p. 109 and II, pp. 88 and 95, and so on, wherein the former verse is ascribed to 'Markandeya'

208 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Markandeya' and the rest to the 'Visnudharmottara'. In his account of India Alberuni refers to and draws upon the present Visnudharmottara on many occasions, and most of these references and quotations have been traced by Buhler in the extant text of this work. 289 The present Kalika-purana, which was written somewhere about Kamarupa not later than the first half of the eleventh century A. D., knows and mentions the So also present Visnudharmottara in its encyclopaedic character. 240 239. Indian Antiquary, Vol. XIX. pp 381-410. Alberuni's references to, and quotations from, the 'Visnudharma' have been traced in the present Visnudharmottara thus: Sachau, Visnudharmottara Visnudharmottara Sachau, Alberuni's India, Alberuni's India, 1, p. 54 cf I, p. 372 P. P. 216 I. 106.29-30. P. 218 PP. 241-242 P. 242 P. 287 cf. I. 120.2-3. P. 379 == = 1.73.17-18 and 34-40. I. 73.21 ff. 1. 106.1-11. p. 380 I. 73.24. - 1. 106.10-11 PP. 381 ff. I. 73.28 ff. I. 106.21-28. P. 386 I. 81.2-3. P. 288 I. 106,21-28. P. 387 1. 81.4-5. P. 291 P. 321 PP. 328-9 I. 106.31-32. P. 398 == 1. 82.1. 1. 81.1-2. PP. 398-9 - I. 73.14-16. == II. p. 2 1. 83.3-21, and 50.62, I. 72.17 b. P. 331 I. 73.13. P. 332 PP. 344-5 = I. I. 73.39. P. 3 P. 21 P. 353 = P. 64 P. 354 - 1. 72.18 b-19 a. P. 65 P. 358 P. 102 P. 360 PP. 140-1 I. 83.3-9. I. 73.37 ff. 240 In Kalika-purana 91. 70-71 a Markan 'visnudharmottare purvam maya rahasi bhasitam/ raja-nitim sadacaram veda-vedanga-samgatam// = cf. I, 73.20 ff. I. 80. 1-9. I. 81.23-27; and I. 82.6-7. I. 72.19 b-23. I. 106.12-13. · cf. I. 78.1-2, rahasyam satatam visnor viksadhvam dvija-sattamah/' I. 29.16 b-17. I. 106.34-41. See also Kalika-purana 92. 1-2, in which the sages say to Markandeya: samksepatah sadacaro viseso raja-nitisu/ Srutas tvad-vacanad aurvah sagaraya yathoktavan|| visnudharmottare tantre bahulyam sarvatah punah/ drastavyas tu sadacaro drastavyas te prasadatah// The questions of the date and provenance of the present Kalika-purana will be discussed fully under Kalika-purana' in Vol. II of the present work.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 209 does the present Naradiya-purana (I. 94). which refers to the contents of the Visnudharmottara and takes it to be the second part of the Visnu-purana According to Sulapani, Balaka and Srikara knew the Visnudharmottara and utilised its contents in their respective works.*41 The spurious Agni-purana (now available in print), which was written, most probably in western Bengal, during the ninth century A.D., has incorporated a large number of chapters and verses from the Visnudharmottara, as a comparison of Agni-purana, chapters 151-172, 218-237, 245 ff. and 259-272 with Visnudharmottara II, chapters 80 ff., 76 ff., 21 ff., 16 ff., 15. 124 ff., 105 ff. and 159 ff. will show. In most of these chapters the Agni-purana has retained Puskara as the speaker, but in a few Agni appears in his place; sometimes the Agni-purana rewrites the verses briefly by retaining as much as possible the language of the Visnudharmottara; and although, following the Visnudharmottara, the Agni-purana retains the old order of the Naksatras from Krttika of Bharani in all other places, it replaces this order with the new one in verse 8 of chap. 219 in spite of the mention of the old order in the corresponding passage (viz., II. 22. 20-24) of the Visnudharmottara. The Visnu-sahasra-nama-stotrabhasya, ascribed to Samkaracarya,342 names and draws upon the Visnudharmottara as well as the Visnudharma. From all these references, quotations and common passages it is evident that by the middle of eighth century A. D. the present Visnudharmottara attained great 241 Durgotsava-viveka, p. 16- 'astami navami-viddha navami castami-yuta/ ardha-narisvara-praya uma-mahesvari tithih//' ity asvinadhikariya-visnudharmottara-vacana-matra-darsina balakenatra visaye purvadine navami-krtyam yugmad iti yad uktam 'bhagavatyah pravesadi-visargantas ca yah kriyah' ityadi-vacanena virodhat taddheyam/ visnudharmottara-vacanam tu sandbipuja-visayam iti srikara-misrah|. According to P. V. Kane, Balaka 'flourished before 1100 A.D.' and Srikara *must be placed somewhere between 800 and 1050 A.D.' and probably in the ninth century.-See Kane, History of Dharmasastra, I, pp. 283-4 and 266-8. 242 See Visnu-sahasra-nama-stotra-bhasya, p. 114, and pp. 22, 30, 136. According to S. K. Belvalkar, the ascription of this commentary to Samkaracarya 'is more or less debatable.'-See Belvalkar, Shree Gopal Basu Mallik Lectures on Vedanta Philosophy, pp. 218-9. 27

210 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS popularity as a highly authoritative work in all parts of India. It has already been mentioned that the Matsya-purana has borrowed a large number of chapters from the Visnudharmottara. Hence the Visnudharmottara must have been written not later than 600 A. D. On p. 460 of his Kalaviveka Jimutavahana ascribes to the 'Brrhad-visnudharma' a few verses which have Markandeya and Vajra as the interlocutors and are the same as Visnudharmottara I. 161. 1-8; and on p. 464 he quotes two more verses from a Visnudharmottaramrta,' but these two verses do not occur in the Visnudharmottara. The titles of these two works as well as the nature of the quoted verses show that the Brhad-visnudharma and the Visnudharmottaramrta, which must have preceded Jimutavahana by a few centuries, were distinct works written on the basis of the Visnudharmottara. Hence the Visnudharmottara must have preceded the Brhad-vissnudharma and the Visnudharmottaramrta by a few centuries, otherwise it could not be recognised as an authoritative work at the time of composition of these two works. In his commentary on the Parasara-smrti Madhavacarya ascribes to •Katyayana' a verse which mentions the 'Visnudharmottara' along with the name of Markandeya as the speaker and refers to the contents of Visnudharmottara I. 140. 19 a.243 We do not know definitely who this Katyayana was. He might have been identical either with the author of the Chandoga-parisista or with that of a Dharma-sastra which is now lost. Whoever this Katyayana might have been, he could not be later than 600 A. D. It has already been said that the Visnudharmottara has not utilised Bhamaha's Kavyalamkara and Dandin's Kavyadarsa. These works mention a much greater number of Alamkaras and a considerably smaller number of Prahelikas and thus indicate the comparatively 243 Madhavacarya's com. on the Parasara-smrti, I. ii. p. 413- apsu agnaukaranam jala-samipe sraddha-karane veditavyam/ tad aha katyayanah- 'visnudharmottare vapsu markandeyena yah smrtah/ sa yadapam samipe syac chraddham jneyo vidhis tada//" This verse refers to Visnudharmottara I. 140. 19 a which runs as follows: anahitagnis caupasade agny-abhave tathapsu va/ two

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 211 early origin of the Visnudharma.244 Nay, there is ample evidence to prove definitely that both Bhamaha and Dandin knew the Visnudharmottara and used it in their respective works. 345 In describing the method of building temples in chapters 86-95 of Khanda III the Visnudharmottara makes no mention of the three styles of architecture popularly known as Nagara, Dravida and Vesara, of which the first two developed into distinction after the Gupta period. According to some commentators, Brahmagupta wrote his Sphuta-brahma-siddhanta in 628 A.D. on the basis of the 'Paitamaha-siddhanta' as found in the Visnudharmottara. This view of the commentators, which most probably owed its origin to some tradition as well as to the lines common to Brahmagupta's work and the Visnudharmottara,246 seems to be highly plausible because of the fact that the Visnudharmottara does not refer to or utilise the works of Varahamihira or any other later author on astrology and astronomy. As a matter of fact, we have not been able to find any work, written later than 500 A.D., which has been utilised in the Visnudharmottara. Visnudharmottara I. 9 gives the names of the tribes living in the different parts of India but does not mention the Hunas. On the other hand, it speaks of the Sakas and the Yavanas as living in the south-western and western parts respectively. The Visnudharmottara believes in 'thousands of manifestations' (pradurbhava-sahasrani) of Visnu and gives shorter or longer lists of these (including Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nr-varaha, Vamana, Narasimha, Bhargava Rama, Dattatreya, Nara-Narayana, Hamsa, Asva, Mayura etc.) in numerous places; but it does not refer to any group of 'ten incarnations', nor does it mention the Buddha anywhere except 244 A study of the history of Sanskrit Poetics shows that the number of Alamkaras was multiplied in later times, but the Prahelikas, which were once very widely popular, came to lose their importance as literary compositions and experienced a gradual decrease in their number. 245 For a datailed treatment (in Bengali) of the influence of the Visnudharmottara on Bhamaha and Dandin see Our Heritage, II, 1954, pp. 375-404, and III, 1955. 246 For instance, the line 'sarvarksa-parivartais ca naksatra iti cocyate' is ascribed to the Brahma-siddhanta in Smrti-tattva, I, p. 741 but to the Visnudharmottara in Kalanirnaya, p. 63, Varsa-kaumudi, p. 224, Smrti-tattva, I, pp.740-1, and so on.

212 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS in III. 351 (verse 54) which is most probably spurious. It should be mentioned here that the Buddha began to be regarded as an incarnation of Visnu not very much earlier than 500 A.D.347 The Visnudharmottara names the Naksatras on many occasions, and it does so invariably in the order from Krttika to Bharani,28 which, as the Yajnavalkya-smrti, the latest books of the Mahabharata, 249 and Varahamihira's Brhat-samhita indicate, held ground at best down to the latter half of the fifth century A.D. From all the evidences adduced above it is clear that the Visnudharmottara cannot be dated earlier than 400 A. D. and later than 500 A.D. Buhler also is of opinion that 'the date of its composition cannot be placed later than about 500 A.D." 250 This early date of the Visnudharmottara is fully supported by its non-Tantric character as well as by the frequent use of the word 'pradurbhava' instead of 'avatara' which occurs only in two places (viz., in I. 172. 56 and III. 353.8). Although the numerous cross-references in the Visnudharmottara" indicate that the above-mentioned general date may be taken to be that 247 See R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 41-42. 248 Visnudharmottara I. 59. 6-15; 82. 22-33; 83. 13-21; 91. 11-23; 95.54-99; 99. 11-24; 101, 5-14; 102. 11-23; 142. 37 (krttikadi-bharanyantam); II. 22, 20-24; III. 249 Mahabharata XIII, chapters, 64, 89 and 110. 317. 20-27; 318. 1-32; and so on. 250 Indian Antiquary, XIX, 1890, p. 408. According to M. Winternitz, the Visnudharmottara was 'compiled between 628 and 1000 A,D.' (see Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, I, p.580). Stella Kramrisch is of opinion that this work 'cannot date earlier than the 5 th century A.D.' and later than Sankaracarya. (See Journal of the Department of Letters, XI, p. 3). 1-3 251 For instance, Visnudharmottara 1. 111. I refers to I. 110. 28; 1. 129. 1 refers to I. 128. 32; I. 148. 1-3 refer to the contents of I. 129-147; I. 148, 3 a refers to I. 130. 3 ff.; I. 165. 1 refers to I. 163. 8; 1. 173. 1 refers to I. 170, 13; 1, 197. refer to I, chapters 128 ff., chap. 110 and chapters, 117-121; II, 1. 1-2 refer to I, 201-269; II, 1. 6 refers to I. 70; II, 1. 7 refers to I. 72-73; II. 99. 1 refers to II. 95-97; II. 99. 2 refers to II. 53; III. 60, 2 refers to III. 47; III. 63. 2 refers to III. 46; III. 67. 1 refers to III, 56 and 52; III, 70. 1 refers to III. 50 and 51; III. 71. 2 refers to III, chapters 56, 52, 47 and 50; III. 73.18 refers to III. 77; III. 73. 24 refers to III. 82; III. 83.5 refers to III. 25; III. 83.8 refers to

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 213 of the great majority of its chapters, there are certainly some extracts and even complete chapters which are spurious. For instance, Visnudharmottara 1. 105.5-20 (in which Pulastya speaks to a Brahmin named Dalbhya ot Asunya-sayana-dvitiya) and I. 146. 1-414(in which Pulastya's speech to Dalbhya on the ways of release from rebirths-samsara-mukti-hetu- is followed by an interlocution between Krsna and Yudhisthira) must have been added at a comparatively late date. These verses begin abruptly with the words 'dalbhya uvaca', although nothing is said in any of the preceding verses about Dalbhya and Pulastya; and their subjectmatter is quite unconnected with those of verses 1-4 of chap. 145 and verses 41 b ff. of chap. 146. As a matter of fact, they create a serious breach in the topics of the chapters and verses preceding and following them. The spurious character of these verses is further shown definitely by the facts that they occur neither in the Matsya-purana (although it contains verses 1-2 and 4 of chap. 145 and verses 41 b-59 of chap. 146 of Visnudharmottara I) nor in the Manuscript of the Visnudharmottara noticed by H.P. Shastri and that their subject-matter is not mentioned in Visnudharmottara I. 148. 1-3 which refer to the topics dealt with in the preceding chapters (129-147). As the Visnudharma contains a good number of consecutive chapters dealing with the same topics and also others and having the same interlocutors as those of the verses mentioned above, 288 it is undoubted that somebody took most of these verses from the Visnudharma, adapted them to the interlocution between Vajra and Markandeya, and then inserted them into the Visnudharmottara after the Matsya-purana had plagiarised chapters and verses from it. Similarly, Visnudharmottara III. 215-220 (on Sugati-dvadasi-vrata, Sugatipaurnamasi-kalpa, Santanastami-vrata, Asi-dhara-vrata, Ananta-dvadasiIII, 26 ff.; III. 85. 57 refers to III. 76; III. 101 and III. 116. 1 refer to the 'Samkara-gita' in Khanda I; and so on. 252 Haraprasad Shastri, II, pp. 164-172, No. 190. In this Manuscript, chap. 145 deals with 'sraddha-desanukirtana', chap. 146 with 'vrsa-laksana', and chap. 147 with "vrsotsarga-vidhi'. These chapters correspond respectively to chapters 144, 146 (verses 41 b to the end) and 147 of the printed ed, of the Visnudharmottara and do not deal with Asunya-sayana-dvitiya etc. 253 For the chapters of the Visnudharma in which Pulastya speaks to Dalbhya and for their contents, see above under "Visnudharma',

114 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS vrata and Brahma-dvadasi-vrata) must be later additions. These six chapters have Pulastya and Dalbhya as the interlocutors and form a distinct section ending with the words 'samaptah pulastya-dalbhyasamvadah'. They do not occur in the Matsya-purana, and of them the first three and the fifth agree with Visnudharma, chapters 4, 5, 7 and 8 respectively, in which Pulastya speaks to Dalbhya. There is no doubt. that the Visnudharmottara derived these chapters from the Visnudharma. As regards the provenance of the Visnudharmottara it can be said that this work must have been compiled either in Kashmir or in the northernmost part of the Punjab. The evidences supporting this view are as follows. (i) The law of inheritance (with regard to the right of the father and the son to the property inherited from the grandfather), as given in the Visnudharmottara, 354 is the same as that of the Mitaksara school. (ii) The incidents of most of the stories given in the Visnudharmottara have been located in the western part of Northern India, especially in or about the land of the five rivers, 255 etc. (iii) Camels have been mentioned in connection with donation 256 (iv) Visnudharmottara III. 314 mentions different kinds of rice, of which Rakta-sali (which is a variety of Sali rice) is said to be the best. (v) In giving an account of the distribution of tribes in India, the Visnudharmottara (I. 9) divides this country into several parts, viz., central, eastern, south-eastarn, southern, south-western, western, north-western, northern and north-eastern. The localities, comprised in these parts, show that the author of the Visnudharmottara must have lived somewhere about the land of the 'five rivers'. 254 III. 330. 19-20 apaitamahe tv asvatantrah pita bhavati dharmatah, pitamaharjite vitte pituh putrasya cobhayoh// svamyam tu sadrsam jneyam putras ced gunavan bhavet/ 255 Visnudh, I, chapters, 20, 148, 162, 164, 167-170, and so on, 256 Visnudharmottara III. 301. 32, and 312. 5.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 215 (vi) The rivers Sarayu, Yamuna, Iksumati, Sarasvati, Drsadvati, Devika, Sindhu, Vitasta, Candrabhaga, Iravati, Vipasa and Satadru, especially the last seven, have been mentioned and praised as divine on many occasions. 257 For instance, the Devika 258 and the Vitasta²º have been identified with Uma, wife of Samkara', and the Iravati, Satadru and Sarasvati have been called 'devi'.* As a matter of fact, the author of the Visnudharmottara seems to have created occasions for praising these rivers whenever possible. 260 (vii) In Visnudharmottara I. 162. 61-65 the meeting places of the following rivers have been described as highly sacred: -(a) Ganga and Sarayu, (b) Ganga and Sona, (c) Ganga and Iksumati, (d) Ganga and Yamuna, (e) Gomati and Sarayu, (t) Kausiki and Gandaki, (g) Vipasa and Devahrada, (h) Vipasa and Satadru, (i) Sindhu and Iravati, (j) Candrabhaga and Vitasta, and (k) Sindhu and Vitasta. (viii) In Visnudharmottara I. 162. 33-35 the confluence of the Candrabhaga and the Tausi (a small river in Kashmir) is praised as follows: (ix) sa kadacin maya sardham tausim nama nadim yayau/ tasyas ca samgamah punyo yatrasic candrabhagaya//, candrabhaga saric-chrestha yatra sitamalodaka/, mahadeva jata-jute ganga nipatita pura// candrena bhagato nyasta candrabhaga smrta tatah/ tat-kala-tapta-salila tausi tatrarka-nandini|| The sacred lake Bindusaras has been mentioned more than once 361 and said to have been created by the drops of water of the Ganga when she was falling on Siva's head." 262 257 Visnudharmottara I. 11; I. 69. 11-13; I, 164. 23-26; I. 167; I. 170. 4 ff.; I, 207. 40-65; I. 215. 44-52; II. 22. 158, 163 and 168-171; III, 125. 14 ff. 258 Visnudharmottara 11, 10-11; 167. 15-16; and 207. 55-56. • 259 Visnudharmottara 164. 23-24. 260 Visnudharmottara 11. 15, 16 and 18. • 261 Visnudharmottara 19. 19; I. 80. 18; II. 22. 159; and so on. . 262 Visnudharmottara 19. 18-19 tasyah patantya ye kecid bindavah ksitim agatah/ taih krtam prthivi-pala tada hindusarah subham/ /

216 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS (x) Visnudharmottara I. 139 states that Visnu assumed the form of Varaha, raised the earth after killing Hiranyaksa, and stationed himself on the Varaha-parvata (in Kashmir), and that it was at this place that the custom of offering sraddha to the deceased was first introduced by him in the Vaivasvata Manvantara. (xi) A study of the Visnudharmortara shows that the author or authors of this work had an intimate acquaintance with the geography of Kashmir as well as of the northern part of the Punjub. In Visnudharmottara III. 125. 10 Kashmir has been mentioned as a seat of Visnu. From the evidences adduced above it is highly probable that the Visnudharmottara was composed somewhere in Southern Kashmir. Buhler and Winternitz also take it to be a work of Kashmir.** The Visnudharmottara is avowedly a Vaisnava work claiming to deal with the 'various duties of the Vaisnavas'.264 It belongs to the Pancaratras and is not a production of the Bhagavata sect' as Buhler takes it to be. 365 It recommends the Pancaratra method of Visnuworship, adds great importance to the due observance of 'panca-kala',*** holds the scriptures of the Pancaratras in high esteem, 267 and extols one who honours, or makes gifts to, those who are versed in these scriptures. 368 According to the Visnudharmottara, 369 Narayana is the highest deity and Supreme Brahma (param brahma). He is the original source of both matter and spirit. For the sake of creation he takes to gunas and appears as Brahma, Visnu and Hara. Visnu, who carries on the work of protection with the help of Laksmi, exists in different parts of the universe by assuming different forms through maya. In the world of mortals he resides with Laksmi in Svetadvipa 263 Indian Antiquary, XIX, 1890, p. 383. Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, I, p. 580. 264 Visnudharmottara I. 1. 16 and 23-vaisnavan vividhan dharman; I. 1. 19-visnudharman sanatanan. 265 Indian Antiquary, XIX, 1890, p. 382. 266 Visnudharmottara I. 6. 40; 1. 61-65; and so on. 267 Visnudharmottara I. 74. 34; II. 22, 133; III. 73. 48; III. 257. 4; and so on. 268 Visnudharmottara I. 58. 10 and III. 155. 6. 269 For an idea of Vaisnava theology, see especially Visnudh.I, chapters 2,6,52, 58, 63 (verses 34-40), 139 (verses 19-22), and so on.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 371 217 which is said to be situated in the ocean of milk lying on the east of the mountain Meru. The Visnudharmottara calls Narayana 'caturat man' and believes in the doctrine of Vyuha as expounded in the Pancaratra Sambitas.270 It states that by persistently worshipping Visnu with absolute devotion (ekanta-bhava) according to the Pancaratra method, one can pass to Svetadvipa after death, reside there for long in a divine form, and then attain final emancipation by entering Vasudeva after passing successively through the Sun (aditya-mandalam), Brahma, Aniruddha, Pradyumna and Samkarsana. It lays special stress on image-worship and recommends to the Visnu-worshippers both the Vedic mantras (viz., savitri etc.) and the sectarian ones ('om namo narayanaya' and 'om namo bhagavate vasudevaya' of eight and twelve syllables respectively) but says that women and Sudras are allowed to use the latter mantras only. 272 As it regards Visnu as 'sarva-devamaya' and 'sarva-rupadhara,' it recommends the vows and worship of other deities also and thereby tries to infuse the worshippers of these deities with Vaisnava ideas. It looks upon Krsna as one of the manifestations of Visnu and seems to add little importance to cowherd Krsna (of Vrndavana), who is mentioned very briefly on two occasions only." It adds special importance to the Pasupatas, whose scriptures it mentions along with those of the Pancaratras in more places than one, 275 but it subordinates Samkara to Narayana. So, it seems that the Pancaratras had the Pasupatas as their most powerful rivals. 274 >278 The Visnudharmottara is practically free from Tantric influence. It advises the Vaisnavas to worship Visnu and other deities in images, pictures, altars, pitchers (full of water), or lotuses (drawn on the 270 For clear exposition of the doctrine of Vyuha, see F. O. Schrader, Introduction to the Pancaratra and the Ahirbudhnya Samhita, pp. 27 ff. 271 Visnudharmottara I. 65. 32 sakare baddha-laksas tu sunyam saknoti cintitum/ anyatha tu sukastam syan niralambasya cintanam//, See also Visnudharmottara III. 108, 26-27. 272 Visnudharmottara I. 155. 27-28; I. 157. 16-17; I. 163. 8-11; and so on. 273 Visnudharmottara III. 126. 3. 274 Visnudharmottara III. 85. 71 ff., and 106. 117-125. 275 Visnudharmottara I. 74. 34; II. 22. 133-4; III. 73. 48; III. 257. 4; and so on. 28

218 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS ground) 276 and recommends the use of Vedic or Puranic mantras or both in vows and worship. But it does not recognise the Tantric 'yantra' as a medium of worship, nor does it prescribe the use of Tantric mantras. The Tantric bijas, found in some of the stotras and kavacas contained in the Visnudharmottara, 277 are most probably due to the influence of the Pancaratra Samhitas, which the Visnudharmottara follows in form and ideas. 278 279 Although the Visnudharmottara decries the Pasandas as extremely unholy and detestable, it seems to have been influenced by Buddhism. It recommends the worship of Aiduka, Dharma and Vyoman and describes their images. By its recognition of Mayura, Hamsa 280 etc. as manifestations of Visnu and by its statement that whenever there is decline of dharma, Vasudeva is born, according to necessity, among gods, men, Gandharvas, serpents, birds, or others and behaves like those creatures among whom he is born, 281 the Visnudharmottara reminds us of the Jataka stories. The Visnudharmottara is written mostly in verse, but some of its chapters, or parts thereof, are written in prose. 282 Regarding the language of this work it may be said that like many other Puranas it contains a number of ungrammatical forms. For instance, it has *vartata' for 'vartamanena' (l. 1.14), 'yatrastham' for 'yatra tisthantam' (I. 4.38), 'tatrastham' for 'tatra tisthantam' (I. 6.58 and 61), 'sandhyasaha' for 'sandhyaya saha' (I. 26.8), 'prathame' for 'prathamam' (I. 139.1), 'duhitam' for 'duhitaram' (I. 252.8), 'patnayah' for 'patnyah' (III. 67.15 a and III. 103.21), and so on. 276 For the different mediums of worship see Visnudharmottara II. 90. 9. II. 153. 6, II. 158, 3, and so on. For 'padma', see Visnudharmottara II. 44. 17 ff., II. 47. 26 ff., II. 50, 20 ff. and 77 ff., and II. 54.4. 277 See Visnudharmottara I, chapters 137, 196, 238, and so on. 278 See Visnudharmottara III, chapters 84, 77 and 75. 279 Visnudharmottara I. 188, 7 and 9. 280 Visnudharmottara I. 180. 8; I. 190, 19; III. 118. 7; III. 119. 9; and so on. 281 Visnudharmottara I. 38. 10-13 a and I. 172. 8-10. 282 See Visnudharmottara I. 237 (partly); II. 166-174 (Paitamaha-siddhanta); III, chapters 6, 18-19, 32, 36, 95 (partly), 97-101, 109-117, 344 (partly), 346 (partly), 350 (partly), 352 (partly), and 355 (partly).