Chapter 3.1 - The major Vaisnava-Upapuranas—Introduction

CHAPTER III THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS In this chapter we shall analyse three Upapuranas, viz., Visnudharma, Visnudharmottara and Narasimha-purana. All these works come from early dates and enjoy very wide reputation as respectable authorities on Dharma. The other Vaisnava Upapuranas, now extant, are of comparatively late origin and limited or localised authority. Those of these works, which have been available to us, will be dealt with in the next chapter. The term Vaisnava', as used here, is comprehensive and includes both the Pancaratra and the Bhagavata works. A study of the Satapatha-brahmana, the Upanisads, the Pancaratra Samhitas, and the Mahabharata indicates that the Pancaratra system originated at a very early period, preached the worship of the post-Vedic deity Narayana,¹ and had non-Vedic, and probably also anti-Vedic, ideas ahd practices. In the Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata," which is the earliest document of the Pancaratras, it is said that the seven Citra-sikhandin Rsis, namely, Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu and Vasistha, procaimed jointly, on the mount Meru, an excellent 'Sastra' which was on a par (samita) with the four Vedas and contained one lac of verses, and that, being meant for the populace and their guidance both in activity (pravrtti) and inactivity (nivrtti), this 'Sastra' I According to R. G. Bhandarkar, Narayana is 'the cosmic and philosophic god'. Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism etc., p. 35. See also S. K. De in Our Heritage, Vol. I (1953), PP. 13-23. The facts that in the Mahabharata the Pancaratra system is differentiated from the Vedic (Mahabharata XII. 349. 1 and 64), that the Sastra, written by the seven Citra-sikhandin Rsis on the mount Meru, is said to have been made consistent with the four Vedas (Mahabharata XII. 335. 40), and that this Sastra was meant for the populace (Mahabharata XII. 335. 39 and 29), tend to indicate the popular origin of Narayana, Also Mrinal Dasgupta, Early Visnuism and Narayaniya Worship, Indian Historical Quarterly (Calcutta), VII, pp. 346-79. 2 Mahabharata XII. 335*35*. 3 See Mahabharata XII. 335. 27-30 and 39.

110 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS was made consistent with the four Vedas. Although at present we have got no decisive evidence at our disposal to prove the actual compilation of any ancient Sastra jointly by the seven sages mentioned above, the very statement that the scripture was meant for the common run of people and made to conform to the four Vedas, is important and implies the originally non-Vedic, and probably also anti-Vedic, ideas and practices of the early Pancaratras. The Mahabharata itself differentiates the Pancaratra system from the Vedic, saying: "Know, ○ saintly king, the Samkhya, the Yoga, the Pancaratra, the Vedas and the Pasupata as knowledges holding different views." It has been held by some scholars that the above-mentioned 'Sastra' compiled by the seven sages was the forerunner of the Pancaratra Samhitas. But this view is hardly tenable. The prescriptions of the early Samhitas of the Pancaratras are not at all favourable to the Varnasramadharma and the Vedas; on the other hand, the influence of the Varnasrama-dharma on the Pancaratra Samhitas increases gradually with their comparatively late dates. So, it is more reasonable to hold that the original non-Vedic as well as anti-Vedic ideas of the Pancaratras were permeated through the Samhitas, while the seven sages' spirit of reconciling their views with the Vedas found its later expression in the epics, Puranas and similar other pro-Vedic sectarian works. In spite of its originally indifferent, and probably also irreverent, attitude towards the Vedas and the Varnasrama-dharma, the Pancaratra system came to be connected even in the later Brahmanic period with the sacrificial religion of the Vedas; and in later times it identified 4 Ibid., XII. 335. 29-40- 7 krtam sata-sahasram hi slokanam idam uttamam/ loka-tantrasya krtsnasya yasmad dharmah pravartate// pravrttau ca nivrttau ca yasmad etad bhavisyati/ yajur-rk-samabhir justam atharvangirasais tatha// Also Mahabharata XII. 335. 29 a-loka-dharmam anuttamam. 5 Ibid., XII. 349. 64- 349.64 samkhyam yogah pancaratram vedah pasupatam tatha jnanany etani rajarse viddhi nana-matani vai// See also Mahabharata XII. 349. 1. 6 J. N. Farquhar, p. 98. 7 Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism etc., pp. 31 ff.

THE MAJOR VAISSNAVA UPAPURANAS 111 Narayana with Visnu and was affiliated to the more popular worship of Krsna-Vasudeva through the doctrine of Vyuha. This modified state of the Pancaratra system is found in the extant Pancaratra Samhitas, on the one hand, and in the Mahabharata and the Puranas, on the other. In the last two classes of works, which betray the hands of Smarta adherents of the types of Anaptas, Arambhins and Sampravartins mentioned in the Jayakhya-samhita," an attempt has been made to make the system conform to the Varnasrama-dharma as well as to the principles of Samkhya and Vedanta. Among the Smarta Pancaratras there must have been different groups believing in, and adoring, the different manifestations of Narayana (Visnu). It was probably the members of these groups who, being inspired by a sense of high regard for the Vedas and the Varnasrama-dharma, compiled Puranic works bearing the names of the different manifestations such as Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, etc. In comparatively late periods, a large section of people threw Narayana into the background, looked upon Krsna-Vasudeva as the object of their devotion, and began to add great importance to his character as a cowherd. They made him the Supreme Being by identifying him with Visnu, often ignored the doctrine of Vyuha, and laid great stress on love and emotional bhakti as means of realising this Supreme Being. These people and their followers took Krsna-Vasudeva to be the Bhagavat and came to be known as Bhagavatas. In order to propagate their own faith, the Smarta Bhagavatas wrote several Puranic works, in all of which juvenile Krsna of Vrndavana figures prominently. It should be mentioned here that as both the Pancaratras and the Bhagavatas believed deeply in the doctrine of ahimsa (non-killing), 8 For clear exposition of this doctrine see F. O. Schrader, Introduction to the Pancaratra and the Ahirbudhnya Samhita, pp. 27 ff. For the older dogma see Barnett, Introduction to his English translation of the Bhagavad-gita, pp. 52-55; Mrinal Dasgupta in Indian Historical Quarterly (Calcutta), VIII, pp. 68-73. 9 XXII. 34 b-37 a. See also R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 203-4 (for the relevant verses of the Jayakhya-samhita as well as for explanation of the terms 'Smarta Pancaratra,' 'Smarta Saiva,' etc.).

112 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS their ideas became the subject-matter of many of the Puranic works, which were meant for saving the Vedic religion especially from the onslaught of Buddhism, Jainism and other non-Vedic and anti-Vedic religious systems. The identification of Narayana and Krsna-Vasudeva with Visnu connected the systems of the Pancaratras and the Bhagavatas closely with the Vedic ideas and made them favourable for the establishment of the Varnasramadharma and the authority of the Vedas. It was most probably for this reason that in later times even Tantric Saktism had to be infused with Vaisnava ideas. The tradition of compilation of a 'Sastra' by reconciling the sectarian views with the Vedic ones, which is said to have been set up by the seven Citra-sikhandin Rsis on the mount Meru, does not appear to have died out or failed in inspiring people of later ages to compose similar works for the popularisation of the Vedic views of life and conduct. With the rise and spread of Buddhism, Jainism and other non-Vedic and anti-Vedic religious faiths, the protagonists of the Vedic way of life must have been actively busy in devising ways and means for creating a favourable field for the Vedas in popular mind. As a matter of fact, during the few centuries preceding and following the beginning of the Christian era the Smarta adherents to leading sectarian faiths such as Vaisnava, Saiva, Saura, etc. compiled a number of works entitled 'Visnudharma', 'Sivadharma', 'Sauradharma', and so on, which were neither Puranas nor Smrtis but were 'Sastras' prescribing religious and other duties to the respective sectaries in consonance with the teachings of the Vedas. The early rise of these 'Sastras' is evidenced by the Bhavisya-purana, in which Sumantu is found to explain the term 'Jaya' to king Satanika, saying: "astadasa-puranani ramasya caritam tatha / visnudharmadi-sastrani sivadharmas ca bharata // karsnam ca pancamo vedo yan mahabharatam smrtam / sauras ca dharma rajendra manavokta mahipate // jayeti nama caitesam pravadanti manisinah //"10 10 These verses, which have been quoted in Krtya-kalpataru, I, p. 25, Caturvarga-cintamani, I, pp. 19-20, Krtya-ratnakara, p. 30. Nityacara-pradipa, I, p. 22 (omitting the fifth line), Smrti-tattva, I, p. 71, Viramitrodaya, Paribhasa-prakasa, p. 17, and so on, are much the same as Bhavisya-purana I. 4. 87 b-89.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 113 "The eighteen Puranas as well as the biography of Rama; the Visnudharma and other Sastras, and the Sivadharmas, O descendant of Bharata; the fifth Veda which is known as the Mahabharata compiled by Krsna (Dvaipayana); and the Saura Dharmas declared by Manava, O paramount ruler, the lord of the earth;-the name 'Jaya"¹¹ for (all) these the learned declare." In another place of the same Purana king Satanika is found to put the following question to Sumantu: "bhagavan kena vidhina srotavyam bharatam naraih / caritam ramabhadrasya puranani visesatah //. katham tu vaisnava dharmah sivadharma asesatah / sauranam capi viprendra ucyatam sravane vidhih //"12 "In what way, ○ venerable one, are the Bharata, the biography of Ramabhadra, and especially the Puranas, to be heard by men, and how, again, the Vaisnava Dharmas and the Sivadharmas in their entirety? (Kindly) tell (me), O chief of Brahmins, the procedure of hearing (the Dharmas) of the Sauras also." It is hardly necessary to say that in these verses of the Bhavisya-purana definite works on the religious duties (Dharma) on Visnu, Siva, Surya and other deities have been meant, and that these works were entitled 'Visnudharma', Sivadharma', 'Sauradharma' and so on. In the extant Visnudharma (chap. 1) Saunaka gives a tradition, according to which the topics of this work were spoken out by Brahma to Bhrgu, Marici and other sages, by Bhrgu to Usanas, by Usanas to Saunaka's grandfather, by the latter to Saunaka's father, and by Saunaka's father to Saunaka. The present Sivadharmottara,¹³ which claims to be the latter part of the Sivadharma, says in its concluding The Bhavisya-purana reads 'visnudharmadayo dharmah' (for 'visnudharmadiSastrani' in the first half of the second line) and 'naradoktah' (for 'manavoktah' in the second half of the fourth line) and gives the alternative reading 'srautah' (for 'saurah' in the first half of the fourth line). It is needless to say that the reading "srautah' (for 'saurah') is wrong. Cf. Bhavisya-purana I. 216. 37 quoted hereinafter. 11 It means '(the cause of) victory or prosperity.' I I 12 Bhavisya-purana I. 216. 36-37. 13 This Saiva 'Sastra', which still exists in Manuscripts, will be examined in another Volume of the present work. 15

114 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS chapter that originally this work was spoken out by Kumara to the sage Agasti in 12000 verses and that the latter spoke out its essence briefly in twelve chapters." The Sivadharma's also states that it was originally spoken out by Siva to Parvati, Sanmukha, Nandikesvara and others.16 So, there is little scope for doubt that Sastras bearing the titles Visnudharma', 'Sivadharma', 'Sauradharma', etc. had been compiled even before the rise of the extant texts of the same titles. A new situation arose in the country with the unprecedented spread and popularity of Buddhism during the reign of Asoka Maurya. In the few centuries following the death of this great emperor Buddhism grew up to be the most powerful rival of Hinduism and gave incentives to the compilation of the present Visnudharma, in which the atheists, especially the Buddhists, have been denounced on many occasions. This work was followed at intervals by the compilation of the present Visnudharmottara, Sivadharma and Sivadharmottara. The Sauradharma (which, as the quotations from it in the Smrti Nibandhas show, was spoken out by Vasistha and might consequently be different from that declared by Manava or Narada) and the Sauradharmottara (drawn upon by the Nibandha-writers) also must have belonged to this period; but they appear to have been lost, no Manuscript of any of them having been found as yet. We have already seen that in a verse of the Bhavisya-purana the Visnudharma has been called a 'Sastra'. The extant Visnudharma also gives itself out to be a 'Sastra' in two places and not a 'Purana', 14 The relevant verses are the following: uktam dvadasa-sahasri (?-sram) sivadharmottaram mahat/ agastaye munindraya kumarena mahatmana// itiha karma-yogasya jnana-yogasya tattvatah/ dharmadharma-gatinam ca svarupam upavarnitam// ity etad akhilam buddhva samksipyagastir abravit/ dvadasadhyaya-samyuktam iti saram vimuktidam// sivadharmottaram sastram ... *** ... Sivadharmottara, chap. 12 (Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 3852, fol. 88 a). 15 This work also has not yet been printed. It will be examined later. 16 See Sivadharma (Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 3852), chap. 1.

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 115 Upapurana' or 'Smrti' even once." Consequently, scholars have been divided in their opinion regarding the true character of this work. For instance, on the strength of the said verse of the Bhavisya-purana Laksmidhara takes the Visnudharma to be a 'Sastra' and includes it among the Smrti works; 18 and his opinion is followed in very much the same words by Candesvara, Narasimha Vajapeyin, Mitra Misra and others.19 Vallalasena calls the Visnudharma a 'Sastra' (sastram ca visnudharmakhyam), which is taken as different from the epics, Puranas and Smrti Samhitas.20 Hemadri also seems to be of the same opinion as Vallalasena, his authorities being the said verse of the Bhavisya-purana and another ascribed to the Saura-purana21 On the other hand, most of the lists of eighteen Upapuranas include the name of the 'Sivadharma', thus giving wide recognition to this work as an Upapurana in spite of the fact that it frequently calls itself a 'Sastra' and once a 'Sivatmaka Dharmasastra'. As regards the Visnudharma, it may be said that the Brhaddharma-purana23 names it in its list of eighteen Upapuranas and that, as we shall see presently, the Visnudharmottara was taken by many to be a Purana or Upapurana. In all the catalogues of Sanskrit Manuscripts both the Visnudharma and the Visnudharmottara have been classed with the Puranas. Consequently, we have thought it desirable to look upon the Visnudharma as an Upapuranic work and not as a mere 'Sastra'. 17 See Visnudharma, chap. 105, fol. 260 a (nasty anyad visnudharmanam sadrsam sastram uttamam) and fol. 26 ob (iti sastra-mahatmyam......). 18 Krtya-kalpataru, I, p. 25. 19 Krtya-ratnakara, p. 30, Nityacara-pradipa, I, p. 22; Viramitrodaya, Paribhasa-prakasa, p. 16; and so on. 20 21 Danasagara, pp. 2-3, verses 1 11-19. See Caturvarga-cintamani, I, pp. 19-20 (visnudharmani sastrani etc.) and pp. 539-40 (sivadharmadi-sastrani yah prayacchati punya-dhih/ so 'nantaphalam apnoti sivadharma-prakasanat//). 22 In most of the chapter-colophons of the present Sivadharma the name 'Sivadharma-sastra' occurs. For the name 'Sivatmaka Dharmasastra' see the line 'uktam ca dvadasadhyayam dharma-sastram sivatmakam' occurring in chap. 12 (fol. 39 a). 23 We shall see afterwards that this work was written in Bengal most probably in the last half of the thirteenth century A.D.

116 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 24 in As to the character of the Visnudharmottara a similar confusion arose among scholars on account of the facts that this work, as its title shows, professes to be the latter part of the Visnudharma and that its claim has been clearly put forth in two of its verses,2 which the Visnudharma and the Visnudharmottara have been taken to form one complete work known by the general title Visnudharma'. It is most probably due to this alleged unity of these two works that Alberuni considered both of them to be one and made his citations from the Visnudharmottara under the name of 'Visnudharma', that Smrti-writers are often found to ascribe verses of the Visnudharmottara to the Visnudharma and vice versa,25 and that in some Manuscripts the Visnudharma has been called 'Visnudharmottara.'26 In his Nityacara-pradipa Narasimha Vajapeyin regards the Visnudharmottara as a 'sastra' and as a part of the Visnudharma, and supports his view by citations from the Bhavisya-purana and the Visnudharmottara.27 So, 24 Visnudharmottara 1. 74. 35 samsara-ksaya-hetvarthe bhavopakaranesu ca/ sottara vaisnava dharmah saram etat prakirtitam// Visnudharmottara 1. 143. 16- adhite sottaram yas ca visnudharmam idam subham/ 25 For instance, the verse 'ahoratram na bhoktavyam' is ascribed to the Visnudharma in Madana-parijata, p. 538 and to the Visnudharmottara in Madhavacarya's com, on the Parasara-smrti, I. i. p. 437; the line 'dattva karpasikam', which is the same as Visnudharmottara III. 313. 4 a, has been ascribed to the Visnudharma in Dana-kaumudi, p. 46; the verse 'upositavyam naksatram," which is the same as Visnudharmottara I. 6 o. 26 b-27, has been ascribed to the Visnudharmottara in Kalaviveka, p. 508, Vratakala-viveka, p. 14, Tithi-viveka, p. and Smrti-candrika, IV, p. 302, but to the Visnudharma in Varsa-kaumudi, P. 8; and so on. On the other hand, verses really belonging to the Visnudharma have been wrongly ascribed to the Visnudharmottara in Kalanirnapa, pp. 200- 201, 202, 210 etc., Kalasara, p. 151, and so on. 47. It can hardly be denied that such wrong ascription of verses is partly due to scribal mistakes. 26 See foot-note 36 below. As a matter of fact, R L. Mitra and J. Eggeling confuse the Visnudharma with the Visnudharmottara, taking these two works to be one. 27 Nityacara-pradipa, I, p. 22 bhavisya-puraneastadasa-puranani ramasya caritam tatha visnudharmadi-sastrani sivadharmas ca bharata//

THE MAJOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 117 Narasimha Vajapeyin is clearly not in favour of recognising the Visnudharmottara as a Puranic work. Mitra Misra also does not include this work among the Puranas, although he takes it to be 'as authoritative as a Purana'28. According to Alberuni the Visnudharmottara (named by him as Visnudharma') is a 'book' (and not a 'Purana') on the religion of God who in this case is understood to be Narayana'29 The present Kalika-purana (92.2) calls the Visnudharmottara a 'tantra'. Except in only one most-probably-spurious verse, 30 nowhere does the Visnudharmottara claim, in the body of its text, to be known as a 'Purana' or 'Upapurana'. On the other hand, Vallalasena calls the Visnudharma a 'Sastra' but seems to look upon the Visnudharmottara as an Upapurana; the Brhadharma-purana (I. 25. 25) regards the Visnudharmottara as distinct from the Visnudharma and includes both of these works in its list of Upapuranas; the Caturvarga-cintamani once names the Visnudharmottara as 'Visnudharmottara-purana';32 in the final colophons of some of the Manuscripts of 31 tatra visnudharmottaram visnudharmasya bheda iti na prthan nirdistam/ vispudharmottare- ete yo vaisnava dharma dalabhyena prakirtitah/ uttaram kathitam tubhyam mayaitat pariprcchate//' The former verse is the same as Bhavisya-purana I. 4. 87 b-88 a, but the latter verse (ete ye vaisnavah etc.), which is ascribed to the Visnudharmottara, is not found. in the printed edition. 28 In connection with Smrti works Mitra Misra says in his Viramitrodaya, Paribhasa-prakasa, p. 16- 'evam vrddha-manvadinam manvadyabhedali sista-prasiddhyadibhir avagantavyah/yani tu grhya-tatparisistadini tani bhinna-kotiny eva puranavat pramanani/ tatha visnudharmottara-mahabharata-ramayanadiny api/' 29 Sachau, Alberuni's India, I, p. 132. 30 Visnudharmottara III. 355. 5 raja'pi vajro dharmatma markandeyena bhasitam/ puranam cintayan nityam narayana-parayanah/ rajyam ca prasisan nityam praja dharmena palayan // This is the final verse of Visnudharmottara III. It does not occur in any other Manuscript of the Visnudharmottara known to us. 31 Danasagara, p. 3 (verses 12 b-15 a). 32 Caturvarga-cintamani, III, ii. p. 462.

118 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 33 the Visnudharmottara the name Visnudharmottara-purana' occurs;³ the Naradiya-purana (I. 94. 17 b-20) says that the Visnu-purana consists of two parts the Visnu-purana proper (forming the first part-adi-bhaga) and the Visnudharmottara; in the final colophons of its Khandas the printed Visnudharmottara calls itself the second part (dvitiya-bhaga) of the Visnu-mahapurana;34 in his Vidhana-parijata, I, pp. 245 and 419 Anantabhatta quotes Visnudharmottara II. 52. 47-52 a and II. 52. 110 ff. respectively with the words 'tatra padma-purane visnudharmottarakhande parasuramam prati (p. 419-aha) puskarah', in which the Visnudharmottara has been taken to be a part of the Padma-purana; in the final colophons of some of its Manuscripts the Visnudharmottara has been connected with the Garuda-purana;35 and so on. From all these it appears that originally the Visnudharmottara was not regarded as a Purana. But in course of time its Puranic form and character encouraged people to include it among the Puranic works, and the result was that some took it to be an Upapurana, while others attached it, as a part, to one or other of the Mahapuranas. The above discussion explains our attitude towards the Visnudharma and the Visnudharmottara. We shall now analyse the individual Upapuranas.`