Chapter 1 - The Upapurana literature—its extent, antiquity and origin

CHAPTER I THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE-ITS EXTENT, ANTIQUITY AND ORIGIN In these days when all Indologists are feeling the want of a true history of Indian life and thought of the past and our able antiquarians are directing their attention and energy towards its reconstruction, it is a matter of great surprise and disappointment that very little is known and still less has yet been said about those valuable records of Indian life and thought which are known as Upapuranas (or secondary Puranas). The whole responsibility for such apathy of scholars towards these valued treasures must be laid on the high importance I The work done by scholars on the Upapuranas is very meagre and scarcely deserves any serious mention. H. H. Wilson, who, in his Essays Analytical, Critical and Philological, and in the Preface to his translation of the Visnu-purana, says much on the Puranas, devotes only about five pages to the Upapuranas (see Wilson, Vishnu Purana, Preface, pp. lxxxvi-xci); Haraprasad Shastri's treatment of some of the Upapuranas in the Preface (pp. cc-ccxv) to his Descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Collections of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. V (Purana Manuscripts), is no better than mere cataloguing; M. Winternitz devotes on the whole about seven pages to the treatment of only a very few of the Upapuranas in his History of Indian Literature, Vol. I; J. N. Farquhar gives, in his Outline of the Religious Literature of India, very short and scrappy information about a few Upapuranas only; the Cambridge History of India, Vol. I spares only about half a page for the treatment of these works; the Bengali encyclopaedia Visvakosa, which devotes as many as 165 pages to the principal Puranas, deals with the Upapuranas in 3 columns only (see Visvakosa, Vol. II, pp. 419-420); A. A. Macdonell finishes his treatment of the Upapuranas in four lines only, without mentioning even a single name (see A. A. Macdodell, p. 302); and the Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (Vol. X, p. 455) has fourteen lines devoted to the Upapuranas. Besides these there are the Notices and the Catalogues of Sanskrit Manuscripts, especially those of R. L. Mitra, J. Eggeling and Th. Aufrecht, as well as about a dozen isolated articles (except those of the present writer) on only a few of the Upapuranas. This is practically the whole work that has been done on the Upapuranas up to the present time.

2 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS which has been attached, deservedly or undeservedly, for hundreds of years to the eighteen 'great' (Mahat) Puranas³ as well as on the disparaging prefix 'upa' attached to the common title (Purana) to characterise those Puranic works which are different from the 'great eighteen'. Whatever the reason may be, we should not, with our critical outlook befitting the present age and its culture, be swayed by mere tradition and baseless impression but be ready to give due consideration to this long neglected branch of Sanskrit literature, Following the tradition of the Mahapuranas, orthodox opinion tries to limit the number of the Upapuranas rigidly to 'eighteen's even in those cases where the promulgators of such opinion are fully conscious of the existence of a larger number; but while in the enumerations 2 Though the name 'Mahapurana' for the 'eighteen' principal 'Puranas' is of very late origin, being found only in Bhagavata-purana XII. 7. 10 and 22 and Brahmavaivarta-purana IV. 131.7 and 10, it has now become very popular and is universally used for the older name 'Purana'. 3 See Padma-purana, Patala-khanda 111.94 b-98; Kur, I. 1. 16-20; Skanda-purana V. iii (Revakhanda). 1. 46-52; Skanda-purana VII. i. 2. 11-15; Siva-mahatmya-khanda (of the Sutasamhita of the Skanda-purana) 1. 13 b-18 (for which see also Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1378); Saura-samhita of the Skanda-purana (Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1382); Reva-mahatmya (which claims to be a part of the Vayu-purana and is very much the same as the Reva-khanda occurring in Skanda-purana V; see Theodor Aufrecht, p. 65, Nos. 114-116); Dbh I. 3. 13-16; Garuda-purana I. 223. 17-20 (=Jivananda's edition I. 215. 17-20 = Vangavasi edition I. 27. 17-20); Brhaddharma-purana I. 25. 18-19 and 23-26; Parasara-upapurana 1. z 8-31 (for which see also Julius Eggeling, VI, p 1230); Gan, I. 1. 8; Bhag, XII. 7. 22; Brahmavaivarta-purana IV. 131. 22; Ekamra-purana 1. 20 b-23; Vindhya-mahatmya, chap. 4 (Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 8091, fol. 8 a); Varunopapurana, chap. 1 (S. Kuppuswami Sastri, XXVII, p. 10331); Bhakti-ratnakara of Gopala-dasa (R. L. Mitra, IX, No 2918, p. 32). For the lists of eighteen Upapuranas contained in verses quoted from the *Kurma-p', 'Brahmavaivarta-purana' etc., also see Nityacara-pradipa, I. p. 19, Smrtitattva, I, pp. 792-3, Viramitrodaya, Paribhasa-prakasa, pp. 13-15, Caturvargacintamani, I (Dana-khanda), pp. 532-3 and II (Vrata khanda). i, p. 21, and Prasthana-bheda, p. 10. Matsya-purana 53. 59-62 mention only four Upapuranas, viz., Narasimha, Nandipurana, Samba and Aditya, and seem and Aditya, and seem to be ignorant of the group of 'eighteen'. 4 For example, after expressly mentioning that the Upapuranas are

5 THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 3 of the Puranas there is almost complete agreement with regard to the titles, this is by no means the case with the titles of the Upapuranas. In order to acquaint ourselves with the nature of the disagreement we give below a number of lists of 'eighteen' Upapuranas which we have been able to collect from different sources. 'eighteen' in number and then giving the titles of the 'eighteen' Upapuranas, the Brhaddharma-purana (I. 25. 27) says: anyas ca samhitah sarva marica-kapiladayah/ sarvatra dharma-kathane tulya-samarthyam ucyate//, thus intimating its knowledge not only of the Marica and Kapila Upapuranas but also of others which were considered as much authoritative as the famous 'eighteen'. (Note the word 'adayah' in 'marica-kapiladayah'). 5 In some of the lists of eighteen' principal Puranas the title 'Siva' or 'Saiva' is found in place of Vayaviya'. See, for instance, Visnu-purana III. 6. 21 ff., Bhagavata-purana XII. 7. 23 ff. and XII. 13, 4 ff., Kurma-purana I. 1, 13 ff., Padma-purana I. 62. 2 ff., IV. 111. 90 ff., VI. 219. 25 ff., and VI. 263. 77 ff., Varaha-purana 112. 69 ff., Markandeya-purana 137. 8 ff. (Venkatesvara Press (Bombay) edition 134. 8 ff.), Linga-purana I. 39. 61 ff., Siva-purana V (Vayaviya-samhita). i, 1. 38 ff., Siva-mahatmya-khanda (of the Suta-samhita of the Skanda-purana) 1. 7-10 (for which see also Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1377), Saura-samhita of the Skanda-purana (Eggeling, India Office (London) Cat, VI, p. 1382), Sambhava-kanda of the Siva-rahasya-khanda of the Samkara-samhita of the Skanda-purana (Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1363), and so on. Dacca University Manuscripts (Nos. 319, 4196 and 4649) of the Brhaddharma-purana (I. 25) give the titles of the 'eighteen' Puranas thus: Brahma-purana, Padma, Brahmanda, Vaisnava, Brahmavaivarta, Mahabhagavata, Bhavisya, Garuda, Lainga, Saiva, Varaha, Markandeya, Skanda, Kaurma, Matsya-purana, Agneya, Vayavya and Sribhagavata. (It is to be noted that this list omits the Vamana and the Naradiya and names the Mahabhagavata and the Saiva in their stead). The Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) edition of the Brhaddharma-purana (I. 25. 20 22) mentions the Mahabhagavata but omits the name of the Sribhagavata, the number of Puranas named in it being thus seventeen. But the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) edition, which mentions the Sribhagavata, wrongly replaces the Mahabhagavata by the 'Nrsimha', which is reckoned again in a subsequent verse as one of the eighteen Upapuranas. In the verses of a 'Kalika-p'. quoted in Caturvarga-cintamani, I, p. 531, the 'Saiva', Kalika (for Bhagavata), Saura and Vahnija (i.e. the genuine Agneya-purana passing under the title 'Vahni-purana') are included eighteen principal Puranas. among the

4 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS I. Kurma-purana I. 1. 17-20- 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Skanda, spoken out by Kumara; 4. Sivadharma, declared by Nandisa in person; 5. Durvasasokta, (called Ascarya ?); 6. Naradiya; 7. Kapila; 8. Vamana; 9. Usanaserita ; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; 12. Kalika; 13. Mahesvara; 14. Samba; 15. Saura, the repository of all the ends of life; 16. Parasarokta; 17. Marica; 18. Bhargava.* II. Nityacara-pradipa (I, p. 19) of Narasimha Vajapeyin (who gives the following list of 'eighteen' Upapuranas on the authority of the 'Kurma-purana')I. Sanatkumariya ; 2. Narasimha; 3. Nandipurana; 4. Sivadharma; 5. Durvasah-purana; 6. Naradiya; 7. Kapila; Ausanasa; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; Samba; 15. 14. 8. Vamana; 9. Mahesvara; 12. Kalika; 13. 16. Parasarokta; 17. Marica; 18. Bhargava. Saura; III. 'Kaurma' (i. e. Kurma-purana) quoted in Raghunandana's Malamasa-tattva- 6 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Vayaviya, spoken out by Kumara; 4. Sivadharma, adyam sanatkumaroktam narasimham atah param/ trtiyam skandam uddistam kumarena tu bhasitam//, caturtham sivadharinakhyam saksan-nandisa-bhasitam/ durvasasoktam ascaryam naradiyam atah param//. kapilam vamanam caiva tathaivosanaseritam/ brahmandam varunam caiva kalikahvayam eva ca// mahesvaram tatha sambam sauram sarvartha-samcayam/ parasaroktam maricam tathaiva bhargavahvayam//. (Kurma-purana I. 1. 17-20). These verses occur in the Venkatesvara Press (Bombay) and Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) editions of the Kurma-purana without any difference in readings, but in the former edition there is the alternative reading 'aparam maricam' for 'inaricam tathaiva' in the last line. 7 See Smrti-tattva, 1, pp. 792-3 kaurme-anyany upapuranani munibhih kathitany api/ tani ca narasimha-nandy-aditya-kalika-puranadini, yatha- adyam sanatkumaroktam narasimham tatah param/ etc.

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 5 declared by Nandisa in person; 5. Durvasasokta, (called Ascarya? durvasasoktam ascaryam); 6. Naradiya; 7-8. Nandikesvara-yugma; 9. Usanaserita; 10. Kapila; 11. Varu- na; 12. Kalika; 13. Mahesvara; Samba; 15. 14. which yields success in all the ends of life; 16. Another (work) spoken out by Parasara; 17. Marica; 18. Bhaskara. Daiva, IV. Kaurma Mahapurana' (i.e. Kurma-purana) quoted in Mitra Misra's Viramitrodaya, Paribhasa-prakasa, pp. 13-14- 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Nanda, spoken out by Kumara; 4. Sivadharma, declared by Nandisa in person; 5. Durvasasokta (called Ascarya? durvasasoktam ascaryam); 6. Naradiya; 7. Kapila; 8. Manava; 9. Usanaserita; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna ; 12. Kalika; 13. Mahesvara; 14. Samba; 15. Saura, the repository of all the ends of life; 16. Another (work) spoken out by Parasara (parasaroktam aparam); 17. Marica; 18. Bhargava. V. Kurma-purana' quoted in Hemadri's Caturvarga-cintamani, I, pp. 532-3- 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Nanda, spoken out by Kumara (v. 1. 'naradam' for 'nandam'); 4. Sivadharma, declared by Nandisa in person; 5. Durvasasokta (called Ascarya?-durvasasoktam ascaryam); 6. NaraRaghunandana reads 'daivam sarvartha-siddhidam' and 'parasaroktam aparam' for 'sauram sarvartha-samcayam' and 'parasaroktam maricam' respectively of the Kurma-purana (for which see the immediately preceding foot-note). The verses of the Kurma-purana, as given in the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) edition (pp. 264-5) and Candicarana Smrtibhusana's edition (pp. 212-3) of the Malamasa-tattva, reads 'sambani' for 'catha' (in the line 'kapilam varunam catha'), and 'padmam' for 'sambam' (in the line 'mahesvaram tatha sambam etc'.). As these readings. make the number of the Upapuranas nineteen, they should be rejected. 8 Thus the Parasara-upapurana seems to be distinguished from the Visnup. or the spurious 'Vaisnava' (mentioned by Vallalasena in his Danasagara, p. 7, verse 63), which was spoken out by Parasara.

6 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS dokta; 7. Kapila; 8. Manava; 9. Usanaserita; 10. Brahmanda; II. Varuna; 12. Kalika : 13. Mahesvara; 14. Samba; 15. Saura, the repository of all the ends of life; 16. The highly excellent (Purana) spoken out by Parasara (parasaroktam pravaram); 17-18. Bhagavata-dvaya (bhagavatam dvayam). VI. Kurma-purana' quoted in Hemadri's Caturvarga-cintamani, II. i, p. 21- 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Nanda, spoken out by Kumara; 4. Sivadharma, declared by Nandisa in person (v.l. 'nandikesvara-yugmam' for 'sivadharmakhyam'); 5. Durvasasokta (called Ascarya?-durvasasoktam ascaryam); 6 Naradokta; 7. Kapila; 8. Manava (v.l. 'maricam' for 'manavam'); 9. Usanaserita: 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; 12. Kalika; 13. Mahesvara; 14. Samba; 15. Saura, the repository of all the ends of life; 16. The foremost (Purana) spoken out by Parasara (parasroktam prathamam); 17-18. Bhagavata-dvaya. VII. 'Kurma-purana' quoted in the Sabda-kalpadruma (under Upapurana')- 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Vayaviya, spoken out by Kumara (kumarenanubhasitam); 4. Sivadharma, declared by Nandisa in person; 5. Durvasasokta (called Ascarya? -durvasasoktam ascaryam); 6. Naradiya; 7. Nandikesvara-yugma; 8. Usanaserita; 9. Kapila; 10. Varuna; 11. Samba; 12. Kalika; 13. Mahesvara; 14. Padma; 15. Daiva, which accomplishes all the ends of life (daivam 9 It is to be noted that although the verses of the Kurma-purana quoted in the Sabda-kalpadruma agree almost literally with the verses of the 'Kaurma' quoted in the Vanga, ed. (pp. 264-5) and Candicarana Smrtibhusana's ed. (pp. 212-3) of the Malamasa-tattva of Raghunandana, the mention of the 'Nandikesvarayugma' and the 'Padma' (occupying the seventh and the fourteenth place respectively in the list) makes the number of the Upapuranas nineteen, If the two Nandikesvara-puranas are taken to form one Upapurana, then, of course, the number becomes eighteen.

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 7 sarvartha-sadhakam); 16. Another (Purana) spoken out by Parasara (parasaroktam aparam); 17. Marica; 18. Bhaskara. VIII. Saura-samhita of the Skanda-purana- 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Skanda, spoken out by Kumara; 4. Sivadharma, declared by Nandin; 5. Durvasa-samprokta; 6. Naradiya; 7. Kapila; 8. Manava; 9. Usanaserita; 10. The sacred Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; 12. Kali-purana, also called Kalakantha; 13. Vasistha-linga, also called Mahesvara; 14. Sambapurana, also called Susuksma; 15. Saura-purana, also called Savitra; 16. Parasarya; 17. Marica; 18. Bhargava.10 IX. Skanda-purana V. iii (Reva-khanda). 1. 46-5211- 10 • 1. Saura, a Saiva work consisting of two Samhitas spoken out respectively by Sanatkumara and Surya and being widely known under the name of Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha, belonging to the Padma-purana; 3. Saukeya, belonging to the Vaisnava Purana; 4. Barhaspatya, belonging to the Vayavya (Purana); 5. Daurvasasa, belonging to the Bhagavata; 6. Naradokta, belonging to the Bhavisya; 7. Kapila; 8. Manava; 9. Usanaserita; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; 12. Kalika; 13. Mahesvara; 14. Samba; 15. Saura, the repository of all the ends of life; 16. Parasara; 17. Bhagavata; 18. Kaurma. adyam sanatkumaroktam narasimham tatah param/ trtiyam skandam uddistam kumarena tu bhasitam// caturtham sivadharmakhyam puranam nandineritam/ tato durvasa-samproktam naradiyam tatah param// kapilam manavam caiva tathaivosanaseritam/ brahmandam ca tatah punyam varunakhyam tatah param// tatah kalipuranakhyam kalakantham ca namatah/ tato vasisthalimgakhyam namna mahesvaram tv iti// tatah sambapuranakhyam susuksmam iti ceritam/ tatah saurapuranakhyam savitram iti ceritam// parasaryam ca maricam bhargavam muni-pumgavah// Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1382. II These verses, as given in the Vanga, ed, of the Skanda-purana, have no variation in readings.

8 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS X. Reva-mahatmya which, though much the same as the Reva-khanda of the Skanda-purana, claims to be a part of the Vayu-purana- 1. Saura, which forms an excellent supplement (khila) to the Brahma-purana, deals with topics on Siva, consists of two Samhitas spoken out respectively by Sanatkumara and Surya, and is widely known under the name of Sanatkumara also; 2. Narasimha, belonging to the Padma-purana; 3. Nanda-purana, belonging to the Vaisnava'; 4. Sivadharma, belonging to the Vayu-purana 5. Daurvasasa, belonging to the Bhagavata; 6. Naradokta, belonging to the Bhavisya; 7. Kapila; 8. Manava; 9. Usanaserita; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; 12. Kalika; 13. Mahesvara; 14. Samba; 15. Saura, the repository of all the ends of life; 16. Parasara; 17. Bhagavata; 18. Kaurma¹². 13 XI. Skanda-purana VII (Prabhasa-khanda) i. 2. 11-15¹³- 12 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Skanda (v.l. 'nandam' both in the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) and Venkatesvara Press (Bombay) editions of the Skanda-purana), spoken out by Kumara (kumarenanubhasitam); 3. Sivadharma, declared by Nandisa in person; 5. Durvasasokta, (called Ascarya? - durvasasoktam ascaryam); 6. Naradokta; 7. Kapila; 8. Manava; 9. Usanaserita; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; 12. Another Kalika (anyat kalikaidam brahmapuranasya khilam sauram anuttamam/ samhita-dvaya-samyuktam punyam siva-kathasrayam// adya sanatkumarokta dvitiya surya-bhasita/ sanatkumara-namna 'pi tad vikhyatam mahamune//. dvitiyam narasimham ca purane padma-samjnite/ nandapuranam ca tatha trtiyam vaisnave matam// caturtham sivadharmakhyam purane vayu-samjnite/ daurvasasam pancamam ca smrtam bhagavate sada// bhavisye naradoktam ca suribhih kath(itam) pura/ kapilam manavam caiva tathaivosanaseritam// brahmandam varunam catha kalikahvayam eva ca/ mahesvaram tatha sambam sauram sarvartha-samcayam// parasaram bhagavatam kaurma(m) castadasam kramat//. Theodor Aufrecht, p. 65. 13 These verses, as occurring in the Vanga, ed. of the Skanda-purana, have no difference in readings.

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE hvayam); 13. Mahesvara; 14. Samba; 15. Saura, the repository of all the ends of life; 16. The excellent (Purana) spoken out by Parasara (parasaroktam paramam); 17. Marica; 18. Bhargava. XII. Siva-mahatmya-khanda (of the Suta-samhita of the Skanda-purana) 1. 13 b-1814 I. 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara (sanatkumarena proktam); 2. Narasimha; 3. Nanda; 4. Sivadharma; 5. Daurvasa; 6. Naradiya; 7. Kapila; 8. Manava; 9. Usanaserita; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; 12. The eminent (visistam) Kalipurana; 13. Vasistha-lainga, also called Mahesvara; 14. Sambapurana; 15. Saura, an extremely wonderful work (sauram mahadbhutam); 16. Parasara; 17. Marica; 18. Bhargava, that accomplishes Dharma and Artha in their entirety (sarva-dharmartha-sadhakam). XIII. Garuda-purana I. 223. 17-2018. 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Skanda, spoken out by Kumara; 4. Sivadharma, declared by Nandi- svara (nandisvara-bhasitam); 5. Durvasasokta, (called Ascarya? durvasasoktam ascaryam); 6. Naradokta; 7. Kapila; 8. Vamana; 9. Usanaserita; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; 12. Kalika; 13. Mahesvara; 14. Samba; [15. Saura ] ; 16. Another (Purana) spoken out by Parasara (parasaroktam aparan); 17. Marica; 18. Bhargava. 14 For these verses see also Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1378 (v. l. 'vasistha-lingakhyam' for 'vasistha-laingakhyam' in verse 17 a). 15 For these verses see also Jivananda's ed. I. 215. 17-20 and Vanga, ed. I. 227. 17-20. Note that with the reading 'evam sarvartha-samcayam' (in verse 20 amahesvaram tatha sambam evam sarvartha-samcayam) the number of the Upapuranas becomes seventeen, and not eighteen. So, we should read 'sauram sarvartha-samcayam' for 'evam sarvartha-samcayam'. For the reading 'sauram sarvartha-samcayam' see Kurma-purana I. 1, 20 a, Skanda-purana V. iii (Reva-khanda). 1. 51 b and VII. i. 2. 14 a, and so on. See also the other lists mentioning the Saura-purana 2

10 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS XIV. Padma-purana, Patala-khanda, 111.94 b-98- v. 1. 1. Adya, named Sanatkumara (adyam sanatkumarakhyam); 2. Narasimha; 3. Anda (Skanda?); 4. Durvasasa (? Daurvasasa); 5. Another Naradiya (naradiyam athanyam ca, athanyac ca); 6. Kapila; 7. Manava; 8. Ausanasa-prokta; 9. Another Brahmanda (brahmandam ca tathaparam); 10. Varuna; 11. Kalika; 12. Mahesa; 13. Samba; 14. Saura; 15. Parasara; 16. Marica; 17. Bhargava; 18. Kaumara. XV. Devi-bhagavata I. 3. 13-16- 1. Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Naradiya; 4. Siva; 5. The excellent (anuttamam) Daurvasasa; 6. Kapila; 7. Manava; 8. Ausanasa; 9. Varuna; 10. Kalika; 11. Samba; 12. Nandi-krta; 13. Saura; 14. Parasara-prokta; 15. The highly extensive (ativistaram) Aditya; 16. Mahesvara; 17. Bhagavata; 18. The extensive (savistaram) Vasistha. XVI. Brhaddharma-purana I. 25. 23-26 Adipurana; 2. Aditya; 3. Brhannaradiya; 4. Naradiya; 5. Nandisvara-purana;16 6. Brhannandisvara; 7. Samba; 8. Kriyayogasara; 9. Kalika; 19. Dharmapurana; 11. Visnudharmottara; 12. Sivadharma; 13. Visnudharma; 14. Vamana; 15. Varuna; 16. Narasimha; 17. Bhargava; 18. The excellent (uttamam) Brhaddharma. XVII. Parasara-upapurana 1. 28-31- 1. Adya, declared by Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Nanda; 4. Sivadharma; 5. Daurvasa; 6. Naradiyaka; 7. Kapila; 8. Manava; 9. Usanaserita; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; 16 This Upapurana, which occupies the fifth place, is named as 'Nandikesvara-purana' (and not as 'Nandisvara-purana') in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. (I. 25. 24) as well as in the Dacca University Manuscript No. 4199 (fol. 71 b) and India Office (London) Manuscript No. 1313 a (Julius Eggeling, VI, pp. 1226-29, No. 3402) of the Brhaddharma-purana; but in the Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 319 (fol. 44 a) and 4649 (fol. 96 a), it is mentioned as 'Nandikesvara-purana'.

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 11 12. Kalipurana; 13. Vasistha-lainga; 14. Samba; 15. Saura; 16. Parasara; 17. Marica; 18. Bhargava." XVIII. Vindhya-mahatmya (claiming to belong to the Brhad-ausanasaupapurana), chap. 4 XIX. 17 1. Sanatkumara; 2. Narasimha; 3. Naradiya; 4. Siva; 5. The excellent (anuttamam) Daurvasasa; 6. Kapila; 7. The holy (punyam) Manava; 8. Ausanasa; 9. Varuna; 10. Kalikakhya; 11. Samba; 12. The auspicious (work) compiled by Nandi (nandi-krtam subham); 13. Saura; 14. Parasara; 15. The highly extensive (ativistaram) Aditya; 16. Mahesvara; 17. Bhargavakhya; 18. The extensive (savistaram) Vasistha.18 'Brahmavaivarta' quoted in Mitra Misra's Viramitrodaya, Paribhasa-prakasa, p. 14- 1. Adya (called) Sanatkumara (adyam sanatkumaram); 2. Natadiya; 3. Narasimha; 4. Saivadharma; 5. Daurvasa; adyam sanatkumaroktam narasimham tatah param/ nandakhyam sivadharmakhyam daurvasam naradiyakam// kapilam manavam caiva tathaivosanaseritam/ brahmandam varunam kalipuranakhyam tathaiva ca// vasisthalainga-samjam ca sambam sauram tathaiva ca/ parasara-samakhyam ca maricam bhargavahvayam// Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 8205, fol. 2 b (Haraprasad Shastri, V, No. 4098). See also Haraprasad Shastri, V, No. 4097 (Manuscript No. 308), p. 762; Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1230 (v.l. 'tatha cosanaseritam' for 'tathaivosanaseritam' in line 3, and 'vasistham lainga-samjnam' for 'vasisthalainga-samjnam' in line 5); and Manuscript No. 38 in the Calcutta Government Sanskrit College (v.l. "vasistham laingasamjnam' in line 5). The above verses of the Parasara-upapurana have been quoted as from 'Parasara-purana' in Tryambaka Oka's Acara-bhusana, p. 318 (v.l. 'nandakhyam' in line 2). 18 sanatkumara(m) prathamam narasimham tatah param/ naradiyam sivam caiva durgasasanam (? daurvasasam) anuttamam// kapilam manavam punyam tatha causanasa(m) smrtam/ varunam kalikakhyam ca sambam nandikrtam subham// sauram parasaram proktam adityam cativistaram/ mahesvaram bhargavakhyam vasistham ca savistaram // Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript No. 8091, fol. 8 a (Haraprasad Shastri, V, pp. 745-6, No. 4086). See also Haraprasad Shastri, V, pp. 746-7, No. 4087 (Manuscript No. 538).

12 XX. STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS 6. Kapileya; 7. Manava; 8. Saukra; 9. Varuna; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Kalipurana; 12. Vasistha-lainga; 13. Mahesa; 14. Samba; 15. Saura; 16. Parasarya; 17. Marica; 18. Bhargava, which sets on foot all (kinds of) Dharma (sarva-dharmapravartakam). 'Brahmavaivarta' quoted in Gopala-dasa's Bhakti-ratnakara- 1. Sanatkumara; 2. Nanda; 3. Narasimha; 4. Daurvasasa; 5. Saivadharma; 6. Kapileya: 7. Manava; 8. Saukra: 9. Varuna; 10. Vasistha; 11. Samba; 12. Kalipurana; 13. Mahesa; 14. Parasara; 15. Bhargava; 16. Marica: Bhargava; 16. Marica; 17. Saura; 18. Brahmanda.19 XXI. Verses (on the Upapuranas) quoted anonymously in Madhusudana Sarasvati's Prasthana-bheda, p. 10- 1. Adya (sanatkumarena proktam); 2. Narasimha; 3. Nanda; 4. Sivadharma; 5. Daurvasa; 6. Naradiya; 7. Kapila; 8. Manava; 9. Usanaserita; 10. Brahmanda; 11. Varuna; 12. Kalipurana, declared by Vasistha (vasistham) 20; 13. Vasisthalainga, also called Mahesvara; 14. Sambapurana; 15. Saura, an extremely wonderful work (sauram mahadbhutam); 16. Parasara; 17. Marica; 18. Bhargava. 19 tatah astadasa upapuranani ca brahmavaivarta-matesanatkumaram nandam ca narasimham tathaiva ca/ daurvasasam saivadharmam kapileyam ca manavam// saukram ca varunam caiva vasistham sambam eva ca/ kalipuranam mahesam parasaram ca bhargavam// maricam ca tatha sauram brahmandakhyam tathaiva ca/ etany upapuranani nigadanti puravidah / / (R. L. Mitra, IX, No. 2918, p. 32). It should be mentioned here that these verses are quite different from those ascribed to the 'Brahmavaivarta' in Mitra Misra's Viramitrodaya, Paribhasaprakasa, p. 14. 20 The relevant line naming the 'Kalipurana' is "tatah kalipuranakhyam vasistham muni-pumgavah," in which 'vasistham' may be a wrong reading for 'visistam'. This latter reading ('visistam') is found to occur in the Siva-mahatmya-khanda (of the Suta-samhita of the Skanda-purana) whose verses on the titles of the eighteen Upapuranas agree with those quoted in the Prasthana-bheda,

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE XXII. Ekamra-purana 1. 20 b-23- 13 21 1. Brhannarasimha; 2. Brhadvaisnava; 3. Garuda;"1 4. Brhat Naradiya; 5. Naradiya; 22 6. Prabhasaka; 7. Lilavatipurana; 8. Devi; 9. Kalika; 10. Akhetaka; 11. Brhannandi; 12. Nandikesvara; 13. Ekamra; 14. Ekapada; 15. Laghu-bhagavata; 16. Mrtyunjaya; 17. Angirasaka; 18. Samba. XXIII. Varunopapurana, chap. 1- 1. Adya, spoken out by Kumara (adyam kumara-kathitam); 2. Nrsimha; 3. Naradiyaka; 4. Vasistha-lainga; 5. Marica; 6. Nandakhya; 7. Bhargava; 8. Mahesvara; 9. Ausanasa; 10. Aditya; 11. Ganesaka; 12. Kaliya (Kaliya ?); 13. Kapila; 14. Durvasa (Daurvasasa ?); 15. Sivadharmaka ; 16. (The Upapurana) spoken out by Parasara (parasarena kathitam); 17. Samba; 18. Varuna.23 ; A glance over the above lists will show how greatly divergent the lists sometimes are. Though, as will be shown hereafter, the same Upapurana is in some cases mentioned in different lists under different titles, the obove lists supply us with the titles of many more Upapuranas than eighteen. Besides the Upapuranas mentioned in these lists, there were many others, of which some are available in printed forms, some still exist in manuscripts, some are known only from references and quotations, 24 and some must have been lost altogether without leaving any trace of their existence. In spite of the serious loss that has been 21-22 The Garuda' and the 'Naradiya' have not been named in the list of Mahapuranas given in the Ekamra-purana (1. 18-20 a). They have been replaced by the 'Saiva' and the 'Narasimha,' which are really Upapuranas. 23 For the relevant verses see S. Kuppuswami Sastri, XXVII, No. 15663, p. 10331. 24 From an examination of a large number of works, especially of the Sanskrit literature, we have been able to collect the names of more than one hundred Upapuranas including those mentioned in the above lists. Questions relating to the identification, date and contents of these Upapuranas will be dealt with as fully as possible in their respective cases,

14 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS brought upon the Upapurana literature by the progress of time and the consequent changes in political administration as well as in the ideas, manners and customs of the people, the Upapuranic works are still rich in number and content. Though it must be admitted that in this extensive Upapurana literature there are works which are of comparatively late dates, it is by no means wise to suppose that the whole literature cannot lay claim to an early beginning. The verses of the Kurma-purana, which contain the list of 'eighteen Upapuranas', are found quoted in Raghunandana's Smrti-tattva (I, pp. 792-3), Mitra Misra's Viramitrodaya (Paribhasa-prakasa, pp. 13-14), and Hemadri's Caturvarga-cintamani (I, pp. 532-3 and II. i, p. 21). The titles, as occurring in this list, are also given as derived from the 'Kurma-purana' in Narasimha Vajapeyin's Nityacara-pradipa, I, p. 19. A list very similar to that of the Kurma-purana is found in the Saura-samhita of the Skanda-purana, 25 in Skanda-purana VII. i. 2. 11-15, in the Siva-mahatmya-khanda of the Suta-samhita (which belongs to the Skanda-p, and of which all the four Khandas have been commented on by Madhavacarya), in the Parasara-upapurana (1. 28-31), 28 and in the Garuda-purana (I. 223. 17-20).27 In his Danasagara Vallalasena refers to the lists of Upapuranas occurring in the Kurma and the Adi-purana 28 These and similar other evidences, which can be adduced from different sources, are perhaps sufficient to show that the date of formation of the group of 'eighteen' Upapuranas as found in the Kurma-purana should be placed not later than 850 A.D. The upper limit of this date seems to be supplied by Matsya-purana, chap. 53, which, by its mention of only those four Upapuranas (viz., Narasimha, Nandi-purana, Samba and Aditya) which were 25 Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1382. 26 For these verses see also Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1230, Haraprasad Shastri, V, p. 762 (No. 4097). 27 The extant Garuda-purana should be dated between 850 and 1000 A.D. and most probably in the tenth century. Sec Hazra, Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, pp. 141-5. 28 tatha kurmapuranadipuranayoh/ uktany upapuranani vyakta-dana-vidhini ca// Danasagara, p. 3, verses 12 b-13 a.

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 29 15 'well-established in society', 2" betrays its knowledge of a few more Upapuranas and at the same time its ignorance of any group of 'eighteen'. The probable date of Matsya-purana, chap. 53 being 550-650 A. D. and the verses (59-63), in which these four Upapuranas have been mentioned, appearing to be spurious but by no means very late additions, the date of formation of the group should be placed 30 approximately between 650 and 800 A. D.³¹ 29 Cf. upabhedan pravaksyami loke ye sampratisthitah.- Matsya-purana 53. 59 a. 30 Matsya-purana 59-63, which give the titles and contents of the Upapuranas, appear to be spurious for the following reasons: - (i) Nothing is said about the gift of any of the Upapuranas, although the chapter is on dana-dharma; (ii) there is no mention of the Upapuranas in verses other than those mentioned above; (iii) though in the verses following verse 63 the classification and contents of the Puranas and the titles and extents of the epics are given, there is not even a single word on the Upapuranas. These verses are, however, not very late additions; for, Narasimha Vajapeyin, who quotes all these verses except 59 a in his Nityacara-pradipa, refers to Laksmidhara's explanation of verse 63 (astadasabhyas tu prthak puranam etc.) as meaning the Kalika-purana etc. (see Nityacara-pradipa, I, p. 18). As a matter of fact, Laksmidhara quotes Matsya-purana 53. 59 b-63 in his Krtyakalpataru, I (Brahmacari-kandda), p. 30 and takes the expression 'tad etebhyo vinirgatam' of Matsya-purana 53. 63 (astadasabhyas tu prthak puranam yat pradisyate, etc.) to mean the Kalika-purana etc. Candesvara and Hemadri also quote verses 59 b-61 and 62 c-63 in their Krtya-ratnakara, pp. 31-32 and Caturvarga-cintamani, II. i, pp. 21-22 respectively. Following Laksmidhara Candesvara also explains the words 'tad etebhyo vinirgatam' (occurring in Matsya-purana 53.63) as 'vinirgatam udbhutam yatha kalikapuranadi'. The omission of these verses by Apararka who quotes verses 3-4, 11-20, 22-25 a and 26 b-56 a in his com. (pp. 392-6) on the Yajnavalkya-smrti, by Vallalasena who quotes verses 3-4 and 11-56 in his Danasagara (pp.463-6), and by Govindananda who has a few lines in his Dana-kaumudi (p. 70), should not be taken seriously. These authors, who drew upon Matsya-purana 53 in connection with donation, had nothing to do with verses 59-63 in which there is no mention of donation. 31 Kurma-purana I. 1. 16-20, which deal with the origin and titles of the eighteen Upapuranas and are given immediately after the list of the principal Puranas, do not seem to have belonged to the present Kurma-purana in its Pancaratra

16 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS This approximate date of the grouping must not be taken to be the date of composition of the individual works forming the group, because all the eighteen Upapuranas, which do not belong to the same sect, could not have been written at the same time. The mention of the Narasimha, Nandi-purana, Samba and Aditya in Matsya-purana, chap. 53 shows that there were Upapuranas which were written much earlier than the date of formation of the group; and such formation could be possible only when, in course of time, the Upapuranas attained the number of eighteen. It can be taken, therefore, that the age of the Upapuranas began approximately from the Gupta period. Orthodox opinion, however, is sometimes in favour of tracing the Upapuranas to a much earlier date. 33 32 As to the origin of the Upapuranas the Kurma-purana, Siva-mahatmyakhanda (of the Suta-samhita of the Skanda-purana) and Parasara-upapurana record a tradition that the sages proclaimed the Upapuranas after listening to the eighteen Puranas from Vyasa. 34 This tradition, which character; because the line 'idam tu pancadasamam puranam kaurmam uttamam", which occurs after the list of the Upapuranas, clearly shows that it immediately followed the list of the principal Puranas and could not be separated by the list of the Upapuranas. For the date of the Kurma-p, see R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 57 f. 32 That this presumption is not totally baseless, we shall see when we analyse the Upapuranas individually. 33 For instance, in connection with the Upapuranas Mitra Misra says in his Viramitrodaya (Paribhasa-prakasa, p. 15): "etany upapuranani puranebhya eva nirgataniti yajnavalkyena puranatvena samgrhitani", thus implying that the Upapuranas were known to Yajnavalkya. 34 Cf. Kurma-purana I. 1. 16 anyany upapuranani munibhih kathitani tu/ astadasa puranani srutva samksepato dvijah//; Siva-mahatmya-khanda 1. 12 b-17 a www.Ba astadasa puranani srutva satyavati-sutat/ anyany upapuranani munibhih kirtitani tu// (for which see also Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1378); Parasara-upapurana 1. 27-28 aevam ajnapitas tena sivena munayah pura/ srutva satyavati-sunoh puranam sakalam muda// anyany upapuranani cakruh saratarani vai (for which see also Julius Eggeling, VI, p. 1230, and Shastri, Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Cat,, V, p. 762).

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 17 86 is accepted as true by the Nibandha-writers and others, 35 assigns the Upapuranas to a date posterior to that of the Puranas and consequently to a position inferior to that of the latter. The Matsya-purana goes a step farther when it calls the Upapuranas mere subsections (upabbeda) of the Puranas and propounds the theory that any Puranic work, which will be found to be 'different' (prthak) from the eighteen Puranas, must be known to have originated from one or other of these Puranas.³ The great popularity of this theory is evidenced not only by its verbal reproduction in some of the Puranic works themselves 37 but also by the fact that the Nibandhakaras and others refer to, or reproduce, the lines of the Matsya-purana either in explaining the origin and nature of the different Upapuranas in accordance with this theory or in including, in the class of Upapuranas, those works of Puranic character which were not mentioned in the lists known to the respective writers, so that these last-mentioned works might be regarded as equally authoriThe entire verse anyany upapuranani munibhih kathitani tu/ astadasa puranani srutva samksepato dvijah// of the Kurma-purana is quoted in Nityacara-pradipa, I, p. 19, Viramitrodaya, Paribhasa-prakasa, p. 13, and Caturvarga-cintamani, I, p. 532 and II. i, p. 21, whereas only the first line is quoted by Raghunandana in his Smrti-tattva, I. p. 792 and by Jiva Gosvamin in his commentary (named Krama-samdarbha) on Bhagavata-purana XII. 7. 17-22. 36 Cf. Matsya-purana 53. 59 a and 63- upabhedan pravaksyami loke ye sampratisthitah/ ••• astadasabhyas tu prthak puranam yat pradisyate/ vijanidhvam dvija-sresthas tad etebhyo vinirgatam// For the reading 'pradisyate' (in the second line), see also the Anandasrama Sanskrit Series (Poona) and Venkat, editions as well as that published by Jivananda Vidyasagara, 37 Cf., for example, Skanda-purana VII. i. 2.*79 b and 83- upabhedan pravaksyami loke ye sampratisthitah / astadasabhyas tu prthak puranam yac ca drsyate/ vijanidhvam dvija-sresthas tad etebhyo vinirgatam || These lines agree remarkably with Matsya-purana 53. 59 a and 63 quoted above. 3

18 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS tative. 38 The extant Saura-purana also lends strong support to the above theory when it calls the Upapuranas mere supplements (khila) to the principal Puranas and attaches itself in that capacity to the Brahma-purana' 19 Though from these evidences it is clear that the above theory is one of long standing and wide acceptance, an examination of the 38 The verse 'astadasabhyas tu prthak puranam' of the Matsya-purana (53.63) has been quoted in Jiva Gosvamin's commentary (named Krama-samdarbha) on Bhagavata-purana XII. 7. 17-22 (v.l. 'pradrsyate' for 'pradisyate'), in Viramitrodaya, Paribhasa-prakasa, p. 15 (v.l. 'tu drsyate' for 'pradisyate'), in Nityacarapradipa, I, p. 18 (v.l. 'tu drsyate'), in Krtya-ratnakara, p. 32 (v.l. 'tu drsyate'), in Caturvarga-cintamani, I, p. 533 (v.l. 'pradrsyate') and II. i, p. 22 (v.l. 'tu drsyate'), and in Krtya-kalpataru, I, p. 30 (v.l. 'tu drsyate'). As has already been said, Laksmidhara explains this verse as referring to the Kalika-purana etc. (See Krtya-kalpataru, I, p. 30- astadasabhyas tu prthak puranam yat tu drsyate/vijanidhvam dvija-sresthas tad etebhyo vinirgatam//vinirgatam udbhutam/yatha kalikapuranadi. For this explanation of Laksmidhara see also Krtya-ratnakara, p 32, and Nityacara-pradipa, p. 18). On the basis of this verse Mitra Misra even goes so far as to say that as Yajnavalkya knew that the Upapuranas originated from the Puranas, he made no separate mention of the former but included them among the latter (cf. etany upapuranani puranebhya eva nirgataniti yajnavalkyena puranatvena samgrhitani.-Viramitrodaya, Paribhasa-prakasa, p. 15). See also Madhusudana Sarasvati's Prasthana-bheba (p. 1) which says: 'atropapurananam api purane 'ntarbhavah'. On the authority of this verse of the Matsya-p, the Nityacara-pradipa (I, pp. 18-19) and the Viramitrodaya (Paribhasa-prakasa, p. 15) include the Kalika-purana, Vayu-upapurana, Devi-purana, Bhavisyottara, Nandikesvara-purana, Adi-purana etc, among the Upapuranas. 39 Cf. Saura-purana 9. 12 b-13 akhilany upapuranani yani coktani suribhih/ idam brahmapuranasya khilam sauram anuttamam// Cf. also Saura-purana 9. 5 betac copapurananam khilatval laksanam smrtam. All these three lines have been quoted in Caturvarga-cintamani, I, p. 53², whereas only the second line is found to occur in the Skanda-purana (V. iii. 1, 46 a, with v.l. 'sulabham sauram uttamam' for 'khilam sauram anuttamam"), the Reva-mahatmya (Theodor Aufrecht, p. 65), and the 'Saiva-purana' drawn upon in Jiva Gosvamin's commentary (Krama-samdarbha) on Bhagavata-purana XII. 7. 17-22.

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 42 19 Upapuranas themselves shows that these works do not often look upon this theory with the same respect as the principal Puranas or other works do. In a large number of cases the Upapuranas are found to style themselves simply 'Purana' and not 'Upapurana' and to try to pass on their own merit without caring to attach themselves for the sake of authority to any of the principal Puranas; 40 and in a few cases they even vie with the principal Puranas by laying claim to their position." Sometimes they are found to go a step farther and claim to be superior to the Mahapuranas. It is to be noted that the older of the extant Upapuranas do not give any list of Upapuranas, nor do they seem to be familiar with their common title Upapurana' or with the theory of their origin which makes them mere supplements to the principal Puranas. This disagreement between the time-honoured theory and the actual practice of the Upapuranas, especially of the older ones, naturally raises doubt as to the amount of truth contained in this theory. So, in order to acquaint ourselves with the actual state of things and thus to explain successfully this disagreement between theory and practice, we shall have to investigate into the origin of the present Puranas and Upapuranas. 43 In connection with our study on the present form and character of the principal Puranas we have said elsewhere that the Purana 41 44 40 For examples we may refer to the Narasimha-purana, Devi-purana, Kalika-purana etc. For instance, in its Vayaviya-samhita (i. 1.41) the Siva-purana lays claim to the position of a principal Purana by saying that the Devi-bhagavata (1.3.16) includes the Bhagavata-purana among the Upapuranas, obviously in order to establish its own claim to the status of a Purana; the 'Kalika-purana' claims to be the real Bhagavata-purana probably because of its dealing with the exploits of Bhagavati (see the verse of the 'Kalika-purana' quoted in Caturvarga-cintamani, I, p. 531); and so on. 42 See the line 'anyany upapuranani cakruh saratarani vai' of the Parasaraupapurana quoted in foot-note 34 above. 43 For instance, see Devi-purana, Narasimha-p, and Samba-purana 44 Problems relating to the eighteen Puranas have been dealt with elaborately in our Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, published by the University of Dacca. See also B. C. Mazumdar's article on the origin and character of the Purana literature in Sir Ashutosh Mookerjee Silver Jubilee Volumes III, Orientalia-Part 2, pp. 9-3º.

20 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS literature, which can be traced back to the Vedic period and was as sacred and important to the Vedic Aryans as the Vedas themselves, dealt with five subjects*5 in its earlier (but most probably not in its original) form, and that, in course of time, its character was changed by the Smarta Brahmin sectaries who took it up for successfully propagating their own ideas among the people who were gradually losing respect for the Vedas and the Brahmanical rules of life and conduct under the influence of the heresies as well as of the popular systems of religion then prevailing in the country. Hence the question arises-who among the Smarta Brahmin sectaries first concerned themselves with the writing and rewriting of the present Puranas? From a study of the historical records of ancient India as well as of the Mahabharata" and other early works of the Sanskrit literature we understand that in the pre-Gupta days the most powerful and popular systems of religion, except the heresies, were those of the Brahmas (i.e. Brahma-worshippers), the Pancaratras and the Pasupatas. So, it may be supposed that it was the Smarta adherents to these religious systems who first took up the Puranas for establishing the Varnasramadharma and the authority of the Vedas among the people and increased the number of the already existing Puranas by fresh additions of Puranic works which were often characterised by the names of the sectarian deities or their chief forms. This supposition gai. s ground when we see from our examination and analysis of the contents of the extant Puranas that those portions of these works which are to be dated 47 45 Viz., (i) sarga (creation), (ii) pratisarga (re-creation, i.e, the periodical annihilation and renewal of the worlds, including the geography of the earth and the atmosphere as well as the distribution of different races on the surface of the earth), (iii) vamsa (genealogies of gods, kings and sages), (iv) manvantara (cosmic cycles or the Manu-periods of time, i. e. those great periods each of which is reigned over by a Manu or primal ancestor of the human race), and (v) vamsanucarita (history of the royal dynasties and of the families of sages). 46 In the Mahabharata the Pancaratras and the Pasupatas have been described. It makes no mention of the sub-sects which arose in course of time from these two mother sects. 47 For analyses of the different Puranas see R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 8 ff.

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 21 earlier than 500 A. D. exhibit prominently the influence of the Smarta Brahmas, Smarta Pancaratras and Smarta Pasupatas.48 conThe next most important and powerful group of sectaries to cern themselves with the composition of the Puranas were the Bhagavatas who rose to great prominence during the Gupta period. It was undoubtedly the Smarta adherents to the Bhagavata system who wrote the Bhagavata-purana 49 Though it is next to impossible to say definitely when the Smarta adherents to the four systems mentioned above first began to use the Puranas for controlling the masses who had become seriously influenced by these and other systems of religion, and what the number of the prevalent Puranas was when these sectaries first set their hands to them, it can scarcely be denied that more Puranas than one had come into existence long before the beginning of the Christian era. By its mention of a 'Bhavisyat-purana'50 the Apastamba-dharmasutra shows that at the time of composition of this Sutra work the term Purana had become so thoroughly specialised as to have lost its proper meaning, and had become merely the designation of a particular class of books. It would have required the existence of a number of books called Puranas to produce that change, and manifestly they must have had their own special names to distinguish from one another and so 48 For instance, the influence of Brahma as Supreme Brahma is prominent in Markandeya-purana, chap. 45 (=chap. 42 in the Venkat, ed, and chap. 48 in Bibl. Ind, and Jivananda's editions) which is one of the earliest chapters of the extant Markandeya-purana (see Pargiter, Markandeya-purana, English translation, Introduction, p. xx, and R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 8-13); the Srsti-khanda, which preserves in it the earliest portions of the extant Padma-purana, was originally written, or compiled, by the Brahma-worshippers (see R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 120 ff.); the Vayu and the Brahmanda-purana are pre-eminently Pasupata; the Visnu and the extant Kurma-purana in its earliest form are Pancaratra in character; and so on. 49 For the original nature and early spread of these systems, see R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 193 f. 50 The term 'Bhavisyat-purana' is self-contradicting, because the word 'purana" originally means 'ancient", and then, as a name in literature, it signifies not an ancient book but an ancient subject, Archaica.

22 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS convert their common title Purana into a class designation."51 Hence it must be admitted that the number of Puranas had begun to multiply even before the time of Apastamba. An examination of the titles of the 'eighteen' Puranas 32 shows that this growth in their number must have been accelerated by the activities of the sectaries mentioned above; and when, in course of time, their number became 'eighteen, it was rigidly fixed. 54 52 '53 Here a question may be raised as to how the eighteen Puranas, which were the mouth-pieces of sectaries following different faiths, could be grouped together and regarded as equally important and authoritative by all of them and how they came to believe deeply in. this group even at the sacrifice of their respective sectarian interests. In reply to this question we may refer to the spirit of religious syncretism, as well as that of sectarian rivalry, 55 that went hand in hand in ancient India and is to be found in the Hindu society even at the present day. These tendencies must have been incentives to the recasting of the same Purana sometimes by different sects as well as as to the interpolation of chapters on different deities in a particular Purana; and in this way all the Puranas had come to attain equal, or almost equal, importance in the eyes of the worshippers of Brahma, Visnu and Siva before the grouping was made. 58 51 Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, pp. 50-51. 52 For instance, the titles Brahma-purana,' 'Padma-purana,' etc. connect these works with Brahma, who came out of the Lotus issuing from Visnu's navel. Similarly, Matsya , Kurma, Vamana, etc. are the names of Visnu's incarnations; Garuda is Visnu's mount; and so on, 53 Among the numerals used for summing up a multitude of concrete objects, a line of abstract ideas, a number of traditional texts, and the like, the numeral ' eighteen' is often used in the position of a sacred number. For a detailed study on this numeral see O, Stein in Poona Orientalist, Vol. I, No. 3, pp . 1-37. 54 Cf., for example, the great influence of the Samkhya and Vedanta systems as well as of the doctrine of Trimurti on the Puranas. 55 See, for instance, Varaha-purana, chapters 70 and 71, Padma-purana (Srsti-khanda), chap . 17, Linga-purana I. 107. 41-42, and so on. See also R. C. Hazra, Studies, PP. 8 ff 56 The present Puranas amply testify to both these tendencies.

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 23 The non-inclusion of the word 'upapurana' in the Amarakosa which defines 'Purana' as 'panca-laksana', and the mention of the titles of the 'eighteen' Puranas in the Visnu-purana, Markandeya-purana etc. without any reference, direct or indirect, to any Upapurana, tend to show that the group of the 'eighteen' Puranas had been formed before the Upapuranas came into existence. 57 After this grouping had been complete, there came into prominence many sub-systems which arose from the main systems of religion, mentioned above, either directly or by identifying the local deities with one or other of the prominent deities of the main systems. In addition to these, there were also other independent systems, viz., Saura,58 Sakta etc., which began to hold the field and attain rivalry with the systems already established in the country. These sub-systems and independent systems also had their Smarta adherents who interpolated chapters in the Puranas of the already established group, and, in some cases, wrote new and independent Puranic works styled 'Purana' in order to propagate their own ideas. Thus, with the progress of time the number of the Puranas was further increased with fresh additions. But as the followers of the famous group of the 'eighteen' Puranas believed deeply that there could be no 'Purana' beyond the famous 'eighteen', they were unwilling to assign these new Puranic works to a status equal to that of the famous Puranas. On the other hand, these new Puranic works had become too well-known and popular to be ignored totally. So, they introduced verses into the Matsya-purana to the effect that any Puranic work, which would be found to be different 57 The tradition recorded in the Kurma-purana, Siva-mahatmya-kh, etc. also says that the Upapuranas were written by different sages after the eighteen Puranas had been completed by Vyasa. (See footnote 34 above). 58 Though Sun-worship is of very ancient origin, the Saura sect, with Persian elements in the cult of the Sun, became prominent in India much later. See J. N. Farquhar of the Religious Literature of India, pp. 151-3; Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism etc., pp. 153-5; J. N. Banerjea, Development of Hindu Iconography, pp. 137-140, 198-9, 430-445. 59 Note that Matsya-purana 53.60 mentions 'Nandipurana' (and not 'Nandiupapurana'), although the latter is called an 'upabbeda.' The Narasimha-purana, Samba-purana, Devi-purana etc. call themselves 'Purana' and not 'Upapurana.'

24 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS from the established eighteen, would be known to have originated from the latter. Thus, we think, the original position of the 'eighteen' Puranas and the rigidity of their number were maintained, and the Upapuranas also were given a position. The theory, thus propounded and introduced into the Matsya-purana by the staunch believers in the 'eighteen' Puranas, influenced not only the later Puranas but also the Upapuranas in some cases and was the root cause of giving rise to the common title 'Upapurana' for the new Puranic works by calling them mere supplements (upabbeda) of the famous eighteen. It is for this reason that these new Puranic works are grouped under the common title 'Upapurana' in some of the extant Puranas and that in a few cases the new Puranic works are found to attach themselves as supplements to one or other of the eighteen Puranas or to call themselves 'Upapuranas' in spite of their independent character.** 61 As to the contents of the Upapuranas the Saura-purana says: "A Purana has five characteristics, viz., creation, re-creation, genealogy (of gods, kings and sages), Manu-periods of time, and history of the royal dynasties and the families of sages. These are the characteristics of the Puranas such as the Brahma etc. These, again, are known to be the characteristics of the Upapuranas because of their supplementary character."6 s The Bhagavata and the Brahmavaivarta-purana also express the same opinion though from a different standpoint. Of these too works, the former says: "According to the Purana-experts, 60 The Bhagavata-purana (XII. 7. 10 and 22) divides the Puranic works into two classes, (i) Alpa or Ksullaka and (ii) Mahat. But the passage, in which this classification occurs, is of a very late date. 61 For instance, the Saura-purana is called a supplement to the 'Brahma-purana' in the body of the work as well as in the chapter-colophons. 62 See, for instance, the Parasara-upapurana (a Manuscript of which has been described by Eggeling in his Julius Eggeling, A Descriptive Catalogue, VI. pp. 1229-30). 63 sargas ca pratisargas ca vamso manvantarani ca/ vamsanucaritam caiva puranam panca-laksanam/| brahmadinam purananam uktam etat tu laksanam/ etac copapurananam khilatval laksanam smrtam// Saura-purana 9. 4-5.

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 25 a Purana must be furnished with ten characteristics, viz., sarga, visarga, vrtti, raksa, antara, vamsa, vamsanucarita, samstha, hetu and apasraya, and some, O Brahman, ascribe to it five characteristics by distinguishing between 'great' and 'small'." The latter work, which is more direct and clear and seems to follow the former in its enumeration, says that an an Upapurana is to have five characteristics, viz., creation, re-creation, genealogy of gods and sages, cosmic cycle, and history of the royal dynasties and the families of sages, whereas a Mahapurana is to have ten, viz., srsti, visrsti, sthiti, palana, karma-vasana, manu-varta, pralaya-varnana, moksa-nirupana, bari-kirtana and devakirtana.65 Whatever may be the views about the contents of the Upapuranas, an examination of the extant Upapuranas shows that very few of them conform even approximately to the above views. In spite of the great influence of the old tradition that a Purana is to deal with five subjects, the Upapuranas, which are more exclusively adapted to suit the purposes of local cults and the religious needs of different sects than the 64 sargo'syatha visargas ca vrtti-raksantarani ca/ vamso vamsanucaritam samstha hetur apasrayah// dasabhir laksanair yuktam puranam tadvido viduh/ kecit panca-vidham brahman mahad-alpa-vyavasthaya//. Bhagavata-purana XII. 7. 9-10. (The terms 'sarga', 'visarga' etc, have been defined in Bhagavata-purana XII. 7. 11-21). The second verse is explained by Sridhara Svamin as: 'dasabhir etair laksanair arthair yuktam mahapuranam viduh/ kecit panca-vidham/ sargas ca pratisargas ca vamso manvantarani ca/ vamsanucaritam ceti puranam panca-laksa- nam// iti mahat puranam alpam ceti vyavasthaya/ yatra dasapi laksanani prthak prthan nirupyante tan mahapuranam/ yatra tv anyesam pancasv evantarbhavasya vivaksa tad alpam iti vyavasthayetyarthah/ Visvanatha Cakravartin also explains this verse in the same way, and even with the same words, as Sridhara. According to these explanations the Mahapuranas must deal with the ten subjects separately, whereas in the Upapuranas the five topics (creation, re-creation etc.) must include the remaining five. As regards its own contents the Bhagavata-purana (II. 9. 43) says that it has ten characteristics which are enumerated, with explanation, as sarga, visarga, sthana, posana, uti, manvantara, isanukatha, nirodha, mukti and asraya (Bhagavata-purana II. 7. 1-7). That there is practically no difference between the two lists of the ten characteristics of a Purana, is shown by Sridhara Svamin in his explanation of the verse 'sargo'syatha visargas ca' (Bhagavata-purana XII. 4 7: 9.)

26 66 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS of Mahapuranas and which arose at a time when the genealogies began to be neglected, are never found to be serious about the genealogies of kings and sages. In those cases in which the Upapuranas include such genealogies, the ancient kings, especially of the Solar and Lunar races, are the chief points of interest, probably because of their giving a stamp of antiquity of antiquity to these works, and nothing is said about any the dynasties of the Kali age. Even as regards those genealogies which have been included in the Upapuranas, no care has been taken to preserve their correctness, but new myths and stories have been unscrupulously fabricated and attached to the important names in these genealogies. But in spite of such defects the Upapuranas are of inestimable value from the point of view of the history of religion and culture, and on this head alone they deserve far more careful study than has hitherto been devoted to them. They not only afford us great insight into all phases and aspects of Hinduism-its mythology, its idol-worship, its theism and pantheism, its love of God, its philosophy and superstitions, its festivals and ceremonies, and its ethics, but also supply us with important information about the different branches of science and literature which were developed in ancient India and at the same time render us inestimable help in reconstructing some of those monumental works of the Sanskrit literature which have been lost for ever. 67 In these respects the Upapuranas are sometimes more important than the Mahapuranas. The latter attained such an enviable and authoritative position from an early date that they were often worked upon by the different sectaries and, in 65 Brahmavaivarta-purana IV. 131. 6-10. 66 An examination of the extant Mahapuranas shows that the custom of recording new dynastic history ceased with the early Guptas, after whom no important dynasty or monarch of India has been mentioned or described in the Puranas. This proves that from the Gupta period the Puranic tradition took, in practice, a new trend which culminated in turning the Puranas into books of myths and legends and Smrti topics with highly imperfect, and sometimes forged, genealogical lists. 67 In some cases the Puranas and Upapurannas contain summaries of ancient Sanskrit works such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and, more often, incorporate chapters and verses from old and authoritative works, some of which are no longer extant,

THE UPAPURANA LITERATURE 69 27 some cases, bodily replaced by later works bearing the same titles as those of the earlier ones.68 So, the text of the extant Mahapuranas which are the results of innumerable changes, modifications and interpolations made in different times and by different sects, is scarcely reliable and can be used only with great caution and careful discrimination. But very different is the case with the Upapuranas which, probably on account of their secondary position, have been worked upon much less freely by the later redactors and interpolators. They have thus been able to preserve, in a few cases, their older materials along with their distinctive sectarian character. It is for this reason that among the extant Upapuranas there are some which are much older than many of the extant Mahapuranas. In those cases in which the Upapuranas have been subjected to modifications and interpolations or have been replaced by later works bearing the same titles as those of the works replaced," the authors of these changes, modifications etc. are very often persons belonging to those sects to which the respective Upapuranas originally belonged. So, in spite of their modifications, interpolations or totally new forms, they are to be valued as the records of changes undergone in different ages by the respective sects to which these works originally belonged; and the hands of people belonging to more sects than one being scarcely laid on any one of them, their study is generally a little easier than that of the extant Mahapuranas. 68 For instance, we may refer to the present Brahma, Agni, and Garuda-purana For information about these Puranas, see R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 134-157. 69 We shall try to prove the truth of this statement when we shall deal with the question of chronology of the different Upapuranas. The Upapuranas are cetainly not all later and inferior works' as F. E. Pargiter would make us believe. (See Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. X, p. 455 for Pargiter's views regarding the Upapuranas). 70 The old tradition recorded in the verse 'kalenagrahanam drstva puranasya tato nrpa/ vyasa-rupam aham krtva samharami yuge yuge//" was as much applicable to the Upapuranas as to the Mahapuranas. It is for this reason that works or chapters on older rites and customs were sometimes replaced by new ones.

28 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS It has already been said that the Upapurana literature consists of a large number of works, of which some are available in printed forms, some exist in manuscripts, some are known only from references and quotations, and some must have perished altogether without leaving any trace of their existence. Of these works, I shall first analyse those which were available to me in printed forms or manuscripts. The Upapuranas still existing in manuscripts beyond my reach or known from references and quotations will be dealt with later.