Part 3 - Classification of Sanskrit Sound according to the places of articulation

The “Vaikharī” form of speech is spoken by men

तुरीयं वाचो मनुष्या वदन्ति

turīyaṃ vāco manuṣyā vadanti

(Ṛgveda 1.164.45) 

This form of sound is articulated with the help of vocal organs.

The vocal organs are divided into two kinds:—

a) ‘sthāna” or points of articulation which are fixed points or areas lying above the tongue and which are touched or approached in course of pronunciation.

b) “Karaṇa” or articulator which can be moved more or less freely and which touches or approaches the sthāna’s or points or articulation^[1].

Including both ‘sthāna” and “karaṇa” vocal organs are numbered as ten in total, according to Yājñavalkya Śikṣā—

दशधा वर्णा भवन्ति औरस-कण्ठ्य-मूर्धन्यदन्त्योष्ठ्य-तालव्य-दन्तमूलीय-जिह्वामूलीययमानुस्वारश्चेति

daśadhā varṇā bhavanti aurasa-kaṇṭhya-mūrdhanyadantyoṣṭhya-tālavya-dantamūlīya-jihvāmūlīyayamānusvāraśceti

(Śikṣāsaṃgraha, p.32)

i. Aurasa varṇa (Chestal Consonant)

Among the ten points of articulation, the lungs or the chest is considered as the first organs of articulation. The lungs are treated as the place of articulation for ‘hv’ and ‘hm’.

“tatra dvāvaurasau hva hma iti” (Śikṣāsaṃgraha, p.33). But according to Pāṇinīya Śikṣā, when “h” is followed by nasals or semi vowels, it is articulated in the lungs^[2]. ii. Kaṇṭhya Varṇa (Velar or Guttural)–

“Kaṇṭhya” is another important place of articulation. According to Yājñavalkya Śikṣā, “a”, “h” and

“visarjanīya” are called the velar series sounds.

“trayaḥ kaṇṭhyāḥ a ā ā3 ityavarṇhakāravisarjanīyā iti” (Śikṣāsaṃgraha, p.33)

iii. Mūrdhanya Varṇa (Cerebral Consonant)

Cerebral consonants are pronounced at the top of the orifice of the mouth. In their pronunciation, the contact is made in the “mūrdhan” with the tip of the tongue rolled back or retroflexed. According to Yājñavalkya Śikṣā, the cerebral consonants are six in number^[3].

iv. Tālavya Varṇa (Palatal Consonant)

Consonants of the palatal series are called “tālavya” (Palatal) and they are declared to be formed against the palate by the middle of the tongue. They seem to have been brought forward in the mouth from the guttural point, and they are made against the hard palate at a point not for from the cerebral, but with the upper flat surface of the tongue instead of its point. The palatal consonants are nine in number, according to Yājñavalkya Śikṣā^[4].

v. Dantya Varṇa (Dental Consonant)

Sounds which produced at the teeth are called dental consonants. According to Yājñavalkya Śikṣā dental consonants are eight in number–

अष्टौ दन्त्याः ऌ, ॡ, ॡ३ इति लृवर्ण्
तथदधनलकारसकारा इति।

aṣṭau dantyāḥ ḷ, ḹ, ḹ3 iti lṛvarṇ
tathadadhanalakārasakārā iti| 

(Śikṣāsaṃgraha, p.33)

vi. Oṣṭhyā Varṇā (labial Consonants)

A full occlusion of the breath channel may be effected by the closure of the lower lip against the upper lip. Usually this closure is made chiefly by contact of the median and inner surfaces of the two lips. As the lips are the place of origin of the labial letters, they are called of origin of the labial letters, they are also called labial. 

According to Yājñavalkya Śikṣā, the labial series consists of nine numbers.—

“नव औष्ठ्याः उऊऊ३
इतिउवर्णपफबभमवकारोपध्मानीया ओकारश्चेति।

“nava auṣṭhyāḥ uūū3
itiuvarṇapaphababhamavakāropadhmānīyā okāraśceti|

(Śikṣāsaṃgraha, p.33) 

vii. Dantamūlīya varṇa (The Root of the teeth)

Sound produced at the root of the teeth is called dantamūlīya varṇa. According to Yājñavalkya Śikṣā the dantamūlīya varṇa is one in number—

एको दन्तमूलीयो रेफः।

eko dantamūlīyo rephaḥ|

(Śikṣāsaṃgraha, p.33)

viii. Jihvāmūlīyā varṇā (The Roof of the tongue)

Speech sounds which are produced at the root of the tongue are called jihvāmūlīyā varṇā. 

According to the Yājñavalkya Śikṣā the jihvāmūlīyā varṇās are seven in number–

सप्त जिह्वामूलीयाः ऋ ॠ ऋ३ इत्यृवर्णः उपाध्मानीय क कखगघङ इति।

sapta jihvāmūlīyāḥ ṛ ṝ ṛ3 ityṛvarṇaḥ upādhmānīya ka kakhagaghaṅa iti| 

(Śikṣāsaṃgraha, p.33)

ix. Yama 

Literally Yama means “twin”. The Yamas were said to be particular nasal sound occurring in the plosive + nasal consonant position, due to partial nasal plosion of the plosive. The Yamas are four in number. 

According to Yājñavalkya Śikṣā—

चत्वारो यमाः कुँ खुँ गुँ घुँ इति।

catvāro yamāḥ kum̐ khum̐ gum̐ ghum̐ iti|

(Śikṣāsaṃgraha, p.33) 

The examples of these four kind of Yamas are presented by this Śikṣā—

रुक्कमेति प्रथमो ज्ञेयः सक्था इत्यपरो भवेत्। विद्या ज्ञाने तु तृतीयश्च जम् दद्ध्मश्चतुर्थकः॥

rukkameti prathamo jñeyaḥ sakthā ityaparo bhavet| vidyā jñāne tu tṛtīyaśca jam daddhmaścaturthakaḥ||

(Yājñavalkya Śikṣā, 93)

These are two stages in the articulation of Yamas. The first stage is the implosive stage of the plosive and the second stage, the air begins to pass through the nasal cavity while the contact for the articulation of the following nasal consonant happens to be formal.

The Yājñavalkya Śikṣā clearly says that the non–nasal sparśā followed by nasals become their own Yamas and the Yamas are in conformity with the “sparśā”.

अपञ्चमैश्चैकपदे संयुक्तं पञ्चमाक्षरम्।
उत्पद्द्यते यमस्तत्र सोऽङ्गं पूर्वाकक्षरस्य हि॥

apañcamaiścaikapade saṃyuktaṃ pañcamākṣaram|
utpaddyate yamastatra so'ṅgaṃ pūrvākakṣarasya hi||

(Yājñavalkya Śikṣā, 94)

The Yājñavalkya Śikṣā also prohibits the nasalization of hissing fricatives and states that when nasal consonants follow fricatives or semi-vowels, the Yamas leave them, just as the relatives of a dead man retire after leaving his corpse in the burial ground.

पञ्चमाः शषसैर्यक्ता अन्तस्थैर्वापि संयुताः।
यमास्तत्र निवर्त्तन्ते श्मशानादिव बान्धवाः॥

pañcamāḥ śaṣasairyaktā antasthairvāpi saṃyutāḥ|
yamāstatra nivarttante śmaśānādiva bāndhavāḥ||

(Śikṣāsaṃgraha, p-33)

x. Anusvāra

It is a nasal sound lacking that closure of the organs which is required to make a nasal sound. There are some characteristics features of an “anusvāra” like—

a) It cannot stand before a vowel; we always find it as a corresponding nasal consonant before a vowel.
b) It cannot stand before a pause.
c) It cannot stands before a plosive consonant.

According to the Yājñavalkya Śikṣā, “anusvāra” comes long after a short vowel, but short after a long vowel–

वर्णे तु मात्रिके पूर्वे ह्यनुस्वारो द्विमात्रिकः।
द्विमात्रिके मात्रिकः स्यात् संयोगाद्यश्च यो भवेत्॥

varṇe tu mātrike pūrve hyanusvāro dvimātrikaḥ|
dvimātrike mātrikaḥ syāt saṃyogādyaśca yo bhavet||

(Yājñavalkya Śikṣā,138)

अनुस्वारस्योपरिष्टात् संयोगो यत्र दृश्यते।
ह्रस्वं तं तु विजानीयात् संस्थामिति दर्शनम्॥

anusvārasyopariṣṭāt saṃyogo yatra dṛśyate|
hrasvaṃ taṃ tu vijānīyāt saṃsthāmiti darśanam||

(Yājñavalkya Śikṣā,140)

Now this Classification of speech sounds according to the place of articulation of Yājñavalkya Śikṣā and Pāṇinīya Śikṣā is summarized in the table 10.

Group	Letters	Place of articulation
aurasā varṇā	Yājñavalkya Śikṣā-hva, hma (hv, hm) Pāṇinīya Śikṣā -hn ̀, hn ̃, hṇ, hn, hm, hy, hr, hl, hv	ura (chest)
kaṇṭhyā varṇā	Yājñavalkya Śikṣā-a, h, visarga Pāṇinīya Śikṣā-a, h	kaṇṭha (Velar or Guttural)
mūrdhyanyā varṇā	Yājñavalkya Śikṣā-ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ,ṣ Pāṇinīya Śikṣā-ṛ,ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ,r,ṣ	mūrdhā (Cerebral)
tālavyā varṇā	Yājñavalkya Śikṣā-i,c ch j jh ñ,y,ś,e Pāṇinīya Śikṣā-i,c ch j jh ñ,y,ś	tālu (Palatal)
dantyā varṇā	Yājñavalkya Śikṣā-ḷ,t,th,d,dh,n,l,s Pāṇinīya Śikṣā-ḷ,t,th,d,dh,n,l,s	danta (Teeth)
auṣṭyā varṇā	Yājñavalkya Śikṣā-u,p,ph,b,bh,m,v,upadhmānīya,o Pāṇinīya Śikṣā-u,p,ph,b,bh,m	oṣṭha (Palatal)
dantamūlīya varṇa	Yājñavalkya Śikṣā-repha	dantamūlam (Root of the teeth)
jihvāmūlīya varṇā	Yājñavalkya Śikṣā-ṛ,k,kh,g,gh,ṅ Pāṇinīya Śikṣā-k,kh,g,gh,ṅ	jihvāmūlam (Root of the tongue)
yamā varṇā	Yājñavalkya Śikṣā-kum̐ khum̐ gum̐ ghum̐ Pāṇinīya Śikṣā-kum̐ khum̐ gum̐ ghum̐	Nāsikā
anusvāravarṇā	Yājñavalkya Śikṣā-hrasva anusvāra, dīrgha anusvāra Pāṇinīya Śikṣā-hrasva anusvāra, dīrgha anusvāra	Nāsikā

Table: 10 -Classification of speech sounds according to the place of articulation of Yājñavalkya-Śikṣā and Pāṇinīya Śikṣā

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

“svarāṇāṃ yatropasaṃhārastat sthānam yadupasaṃharati tatkaraṇam, anyeṣāṃ tu yatra sparśanam tatra sthānam, yena sparśayati tat karaṇam|” (Taittirīyapratiśākhya,2.31-34)

[2]:

Pāṇinīya Śikṣā,16

[3]:

“ṣaṇmūrdhanyāḥ ṭaṭhaḍaḍhaṇaṣā iti|”

[4]:

“nava tālavyāḥ iīī3 itīvarṇaḥ cachajajhañayaśā ekāraśceti|”