Chapter 1(d) - A Discussion on Vedic Rituals

Our knowledge of the Vedic ritual is derived from three sources: the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Shrauta and Grihyasutras. The earliest reference to the Vedic ritual is found in the Rigveda Samhita. The names of sacrificial objects are mentioned: yupa, idhma, samidh, juhu, gravanah, drone, camasa etc. The three savannas of the Somayaga have been mentioned. The Rigveda also knew the existence of at least seven priests: Hotri, Potri, Nestri, Agnidh, Prashasiri, Adhvaryu and Brahman. A Stage was reached when the hymns, as a poet claims, could only be understood by means of yaga. It is certain, therefore, that in the Rigveda period the ritual was fairly extensive.

The sacrifices are the first origin and basic dharma according to Rigveda. The sacrificial fire is central to all Vedic ritual. Sacrifice is called ‘Yajna’ in Sanskrit. The word yajna is derived from the root ‘√yaj’ with the suffix ‘Nan’ (Devapujasangatikaranadanesu). The word yajna actually means giving something in the fire to propitiate Gods for securing prosperity, removing undesirable elements and for securing the heaven.^[1]

In the Nirukta, the word yajna is used in the sense of offering oblation in the fire^[2]. The ritual is all important and it has been expressly stated to be the best act ever performed^[3]. To speak metaphorically, it is like a ship sailing heavenword. The Shat.Br. enjoins that ritual is a compulsory duty for a man. Man is bound to perform rituals because he, from the very birth, owes a debt to the Gods and he must satisfy them by offering sacrificial oblation in the fire. In another place the Brahmana observes that man by his own self is born as a debt to death and in that sacrifiers, thereby he redeems himself from death^[4]. Not only the mortal beings but even the Gods also attained their divine glory and heavenly status by means of ritual. Besides these, Gods also attained immortality by performing ritual^[5].

Regarding the origin of the ritual Shat.Br. says, the Prajapati remains to be the main source of ritual and he again himself has been identified with ritual. It is found that after giving himself to the Gods Prajapati created his counterpart (pratima) viz. the ritual. Prajapati is said to have discovered the ritual. Prajapati is also said to have created subjects (praja) along with the ritual^[6].

The yajna is a very important performance as said in the Srimadbhagavatgita—“All the living beings grow from crops, the crops grow from the cloud, the cloud grows from the ritual, the ritual comes into existence from work, work from the Veda and the Veda from the Supreme Being (Parabrahma)^[7].

There are various types of rituals serving different ends. Some are obligatory (Nitya), where as others are occasional (Naimittika) rituals. The rituals which are performed daily as a compulsory life long ritual session are termed obligatory but the kamya or wish-yielding rituals come under the occasional type. Agnihotra is the example of obligatory ritual while occasional rituals are wish-yielding and their results range from the birth of a son, bringing down rain etc to the attainment of union with the Deities.

The ritual or sacrifice may be divided into five classes viz. Homa, Ishti, Pashu, Soma and Satra. Every type of ritual has its Prakriti or model and Vikriti or modifications which follow the pattern of the model. The Prakriti is also called Pradhana—the main ritual and Vikriti, the Anga or accessories. Thus the Prakritis or models of the five types of Vedic rituals Homa, Ishti, Pashu, Soma and Satra are Agnihotria, Darshapaurņamasa, Daiksha or Prajapatya Pashu, Agnishtoma and Gavamayanam respectively.

Homa ritual consists in offering oblations of milk, curd, rice, cake etc to the Sun-God and Agni in the sacrificial firepit everyday both in the morning and in the evening. It is also called Darvi-homa as the offerings are poured into the fire by means of a ladle called Darvi. Agnihotra is the model for the Homa type of rituals. The higher three casts had to perform the Agnihotria daily in the early Vedic age. Later on the Kshtriyas and Vaishyas appointed their Brahmin priests to perform it on their behalf. It was obligatory for a Brahmin to perform the Agnihotra every day along with his wife throughout his lifetime. In this ritual oblations are offered to the Sungod in the morning before sunrise and in the evening after the Sun had set. The same hymn is uttered both the time with slight variation. In the morning the verse accompanying the oblation reads as–‘Suryah jyotir jyotih Suryah’ (the Sun is the light and the light is the Sun) but in the evening the term Agni i.e. fire is substituted in place of Surya;because the sun relegates its light to the fire when it sets.

In the Agnihotra the oblation consists of milk and a separate milk cow is reared for that purpose called Agnihotri gabhi. Milk is boiled in an earthen pot within the sacrificial campus and is offered as oblation in the Ahavaniya fire with a ladle called Agnihotra-havani. Two principal oblations are offered in the evening rite the first being offered to Agni and the second to Prajapati. Similarly, two main offerings are made in the morning of which the first belongs to Surya and the second to Prajapati. These four oblations are the important ones in the Agnihotra. As the first oblation in the evening is offered to Agni the whole ritual goes by the name of Agnitra. This view is advocated by Apastamba in his Shrauta Sutra^[8].

The yajamana himself should offer these oblations in the morning and evening. If he be physically incapacitated he should get it done by his son or priest. Full moon and new moon days he will have to do it himself under all circumstances; proxy is not allowed. Milk, curd and gruel (yavagu) are used as offerings. Each of this offering (havis) is conducive to particular result. Those who desire cattle or heaven should offer milk, those desiring objects of senses should offer curd and gruel—offering is meant for them who desire possession of village. Besides these main objects of oblation, rice, paddy and butter are offered serving different ends. One desiring food should offer rice; one longing for attainment of strength should offer paddy and butter is the oblation for him who desires mental vigour.

A Brahmana does not get rid of performing Agnihotra except his death. A bachelor or a widower has no right to perform this ritual. It is mentioned in the Atharvaveda and described in details in the Yajurveda and Shatapatha Brahmana.

The model for Ishti type of ritual is called Darshapaurņamasa. Darsha means the confluence of the Sun and the Moon (suryendu-sangamah) i.e., the dark called Amavasya. Paurnamasi means the full moon. This ritual is to be performed on the new moon and full moon days. A person belonging to one of the three higher castes who is neither a bachelor nor a widower and who has already established his Garhapatya fire is entitled to the performance of his ritual. The ceremony consists of two days in the full moon and two days in the dark moon. During the full moon the rite commences from the morning of the full moon day and terminates in the forenoon of the following day i.e. pratipada. Likewise in the newmoon the ceremony covers the period from the morning of that day to the forenoon of the day following. While performing this ritual for the first time the sacrifice should commence with the full moon rite and follow it up with the new moon rite; he should not commence in the new moon. Four priests are required for this performance, viz. Hotri, Adhvaryu, Agnidhra and Brahman.

This ritual may be either obligatory (Nitya) or wish-yielding (Kamya). It is Nitya for those who perform it in every full moon and new moon throughout their lifetime without any break. In their case non-performance or break of performance will lead to some disaster called Pratyavaya. It is kamya or wish-yielding for them who donot perform it regularly but only once or twice for the fulfilment of some desire.

Daiksha or Prajapatya Pashu is the model for all Pashuyagas. It is also termed Nirudha-Pashu-bandha. One who has established his household fire (Garhapatyagni) is called Ahitagni. Such a person should perform the Pashuyaga every year. It may be performed once or twice or six times in a year. If it is performed once only it should be done in the rainy season, if twice, one sacrifice should take place in the Uttarayana of the Sun and another in the Dakshinayana. If one desires to perform six times one performance should take place in each of the six seasons. At least once it should be performed every year by an Ahitagni otherwise he will be held guilty.

An animal is the offering in this ritual; hence it is called Pashuyaga. A goat is the offering; all the limbs of the goat are not offered. Only such special organs such as its heart, fat etc. are offered as oblation. The Deities are Prajapati, Surya or Indra and Agni jointly. Six priests are necessary for the performance- Adharyu, Pratiprasthatri, Hotri, Maitravaruna, Agnit and Brahman.

In this ritual stakes called Yupas are necessary for tying the sacrificial animal thereto. These stakes are made of one of the four kinds of trees—Palasha (Butea Frondosa), Khadira (Acacia Catechu), Vilva (Aegle Marmelos) or Rohitaka. The different varities of stake subserve different purposes. One desirous of attaining heaven should fashion the stake out of Khadira wood; he who longs for food (anna) and nourishment (pushti) should make the stake out of Vilva tree and he who desires mental strength and spiritual excellence should take the Palasha wood for fashioning the stake. Towards the easternmost part of the sacrificial alter the stake is posted. The animal is generally a he-goat without any blemish like blindness, lameness, etc. and whose teeth have grown.

In the animal ritual the strangling or killing of the animal is not regarded as slaughter. It is not a crime. When an animal is offered as a viction in the ritual it leaves behind its mortal frame and its spirit achieves union with the Gods invoked in the ritual. The ritual helps the animal to attain to this divine status, union with the Gods in an easy way. It is said that through the ritual the soul of an animal gets union with that very God for whom it is sacrificed.

Agnishtoma ritual is the model for all Soma rituals. It is also called Jyotishtoma. The juice of the creeper Soma is the main oblation in this ritual. In the twelve stotras sung in this type of ritual the last stotra goes by the name of Agnishtoma. Because the ritual terminates with the Samavedic chant (stotra) called Agnishtoma, the ritual also termed Agnishtoma.

Every year in the spring this ritual is to be performed by twice born caste with his wife. Soma creeper is procured from distant places and preserved with care. As Soma is not available Putika is used as its substitute. All the sixteen priests are required for the performance of Agnishtoma. Some authors of Shrauta sutras count another priest called ‘Sadasya’ as the seventeenth one. Some again consider yajamana or sacrifice to be the seventeenth. On the first day the yajamana welcomes these priests and appoints them for the performance promising sacrificial fees (Dakshina). This is known as Ritivika-varaņam. This is followed by the Initiation ceremony called Dikshaniyesti. The yajamana and his wife are initiated. On the second day the Initiation ritual (Prayaniyeshti) is performed in the morning. Five deities are invoked Pathya Svasti, Agni, Soma, Savita and Aditi. Rice is the oblation for Aditi and for the remaining four Gods melted butter is the oblation prescribed. The Prayaniya rite is followed by the ceremony of purchasing Soma creeper (Somakraya). Soma is purchased from a Sudra in exchange of ten mediums of barter viz., one year old cow, gold, she-goat, milch cow and her calf, an ox, a bullock fit to draw cart, a bull-calf and cloths. Soma is the king of Gods and Brahmanas. Hence Soma is placed on a cart drawn by two bullocks and driven by the priests towards the sacrificial alter. King Soma becomes an honoured guest and hence a rite is performed known as Atithyeshti or the rite of hospitality. Rice-paps placed on nine potsherds are offered to Vishnu in this rite. This is followed by Pravargya ceremony which again is followed by the ritual termed Upasad ishti. On the third day a great altar (Mahavedi) is erected confronting the eastern part of the sacrificial campus technically known as Pragvamsha or Pracinavamsha. On the fourth day an animal ritual, Pashu-yaga is performed in honour of the deities Agni and Soma jointly after the manner of Nirudha-Pashu-bandha. On this day Soma is carried to the right Havirdhana altar; this function is termed Havirdhana-pranayanam. At midday libation animal flesh and ricepap are offered as oblation and at dusk the different organs of the animal are offered as oblation. This is followed by the ceremony relating to the sacrificer’s wife called Patni-samyaja. These ceremonies covering the first four days serve as a prelude to the actual Agnishtoma ritual which takes place on the fifth i.e. the last day. On the fifth day the ceremony of the extraction of Soma juice (Somabhishava) takes place. All the priests get up before dawn, bath in holy water and make arrangements for the extraction of the Soma juice. After all these preliminary rites being performed, at the end the concluding rite called the Udayanyeshti is performed at the Salamukhiya Agni. This is performed in the same manner as the Prayaniyeshti ritual^[9]. In the previously established carupatra, caru (milk rice porridge) is cooked. The principal Gods are Agni, Soma, Savita and Pathyasvasti in that order. After the Udayaniya is over, the Anubandhya yaga is performed. The main Deity of this ritual is Mitravaruna and havis is amiksha. This is followed by five devika ahutis and one ahuti of dvadasha purodasha, to the family deity. Thereafter, the caru cooked earlier and kept in the four Patras are offered as four different ahutis to Anumoti, Raka, sinivati and kruha respectively. After the hair cut of the yajamana, the agnis are merged with the aranis. Returning home, the domestic fires are again lit by rubbing the aranis together and the ritual of Udvasaniya Ishti (Devajana Tyaga) is performed. The main Deity of this ritual is Agni Deva and the havis is Kapal Purodasha. Alternatively, instead of this Ishti, the Havi Vishnu mantra can be recited while offering one ahuti of the ajya in the avahaniya fire. This concludes the Agnishtoma Yaga.

The Gavamayana rite is the model of all Satra type of rituals. Gavamayana is included into Somayaga and hence Agnishtoma is its Prakriti. Though Gavamayana is included into Somayaga, yet it has separate classification regarding its time factor. The ritual which is completed in a day is called Ehaha-yaga, which requires time more than one day and less than twelve day are called Ahina-yaga, which takes time more than twelve days are termed as Satra. Some Satra ritual send upto one year, some extend upto ten years and others extened upto one hundred or one thousand years.

The Gavamayana is the great sacrificial sesson usually extending over three hundred sixty one days nearly a whole year round. It may be arranged in three parts -first part consisting of one hundred eighty days and having different forms of Soma ritual, the last part also consists of one hundred eighty days during which period the rites of the one hundred eighty days are performed in the reverse order. The middle part consists of one day performance called vishuva.

A critical study of the Gavamayana ritual it is found that it has a similarity with the annual motion of the Sun. The whole rituals are divided into two parts and the performance of each part takes six months.

The five great rituals known as Panca-mahayajnas are enjoined to be performed daily by the house holders. They consists of the ritual to beings (Bhutayajna), the ritual to the men (Nriyajna), the ritual to the fathers (Pitriyajna), the ritual to the Gods (Devayajna) and the ritual to the Veda (Brahmayajna). Bhutayajna consists of the various offerings placed on the ground for all sorts of beings; Nriyajna means the rite of hospitality to the guests, Brahmins and beggars; Pitriyajna consists in offering the oblations sprinkled with water to the fathers; Devayajna means worship of Gods and Brahmayajna means the recitation of the Veda. These Pancayajna are obligatory.

All these rituals have much important in our life. Ritual is the medium for attaining both material prosperity and heavenly rewards. Heavenly bliss is the real and final goal of a ritual, the worldly gains being auxiliary to it. Thus ritual is regarded as the greatest of all actions. Again, the ritual is described as safest boat which takes the sacrifice across the troubled waters to the peaceful shore.

Rituals promised not only rewards in the other world and heavenly bliss but also worldly gains in the forms of wealth, food, cattle, son, long life etc. Monarchs could attain sovereignty through rituals alone such as Rajasuya, Vajapeya, and Ashvamedha etc. Hence the priests were held in owe and veneration. Due to the supreme importance of the ritual in the Vedic age the priests enjoyed a unique position.

The ritual is the source of creation. The Primal Being called Purusha offers himself as the victim in the first sacrifice performed by him. Out of his self-sacrifice springs up the whole universe with the four Vedas, four casts, animals, the Sun, the Moon, the firmament, fire, air etc.

Moreover, some rituals are performed with the exclusive object of fulfilling certain worldly desires. For example, the ritual called ‘Karirishti’ is performed to bring down rain in times of drought; the ‘Putreshti’ is performed for the birth of a son etc. Sound health and long life are desired by all mortals. For these worldly gains man propitiates the Gods and the Goddesses by performing rituals. Thus ritual is regarded as the sure means to attain both wordly and other worldly possession.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Kat.Shrauta Sutra. 1.2.2

[2]:

Nirukta 3.4, P.152

[3]:

Shatapatha Brahmana. 1.7.2.6

[4]:

Shatapatha Brahmana 3.6.2.16

[5]:

Shatapatha Brahmana. 3.1.4.3

[6]:

Bhagavadgita 3.10

[7]:

Bhagavadgita 3.14-15

[8]:

Apastamba Shrauta Sutra. 6.13.1-9

[9]:

Vaitana Sutra. 24.8