Shaivacintamani (analytical study)

by Swati Sucharita Pattanaik | 2022 | 84,311 words

This page relates ‘Origin and Development of Shaivism in Orissa (Odisha)’ of the English study on the Shaivacintamani—an unstudied text on Shaiva or Shiva worship by Lakshmidhara Mishra, written in the late 17th century and edited for the first time in 1994 by Shri Dukhisyam Pattanaik from the Orissa State Museum. The present research aims to offer a comprehensive study of the Saivacintamani, filling the knowledge gap by being the first to provide in-depth analysis and commentary.

Go directly to: Footnotes.

Part 2 - The Origin and Development of Śaivism in Orissa (Odisha)

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The origin of the Śaivism is lost in obscurity. Its history in India can be traced back to third millennium B.C. when the non-Aryans^[1] of the Indus Valley appeared in the Proto-historic period as the worshippers of Paśupati, the Prototype of Rudraśiva^[2] of the Vedic age. The availability of a large number of pieces resembling phallus has led indologists^[3] to believe that Śiva was worshipped in the phallic form. In the Ṛgveda, Rudra has been invoked as the Lord of the forests.^[4] This indicates that the concept of the Śaivism was particularly popular among the forest tribes and aboriginals in India in the preVedic age. Śata-Rudriya pays homage to the non-Vedic Niṣādas^[5] as the worshippers of Rudra who is further worshipped as “Sarva’ in the “Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa^[6] and Bhava in the Atharvaveda^[7] respectively.

The early medieval inscriptions of Orissa refer to Pulindas^[8], śavaras and Kirātas who dwelt in the Vindhyan range and Mahendragiri as the worshippers of Śiva in the Phallic form, which seems to have emerged from tree worship. In the inscriptions of Orissa, Paśupati in the form of Liṅga is referred to as “Sthaṇumurtti.”^[9] The Mukhaliṅgaṃ kṣetra māhātmya^[10], a part of Skanda Purāṇa, refers to an anecdote which supports our hypothesis that the worship of Lord Śivaliṅga possibly emerged from tree worship. According to the anecdote, a Savara chief who lived in the vicinity of Kaliṅga nagarī(modern Mukhaliṅgaṃ), had two wives who maintained their livelihood from the yield of a Madhuka tree. One of the wives was devoted to Śiva and she was blessed with golden flowers from tree while the other had no such privilege Consequently, there was a quarrel in the family and the Savara in utter disgust cut the tree at its very root. Strangely, there appeared from the root of that tree a Śivaliṅga whom the people of the locality worshipped as Madhukesvara. This leads us to hold the view that in the history of Śaivism in Orissa, the beginning of the cult is indicated by the synthesis of the primitive tree-worship, proto-historic Liṅga worship and the Vedic Rudra worship. The rise and growth of Śaivism in Orissa can be historically gleaned from the Mauryan period on the basis of epigraphic and literary evidences.^[11]

Asoka, possibly a Śaivite before his conversion, in course of the terrible carnage of the Kaliṅga war, was not merely moved by the blood-shed but by observing the sad plights of the innocent Brahmanas^[12] of the Śaivite disposition who lost their lives in the Kaliṅga war. In the post-Asokan period, Kharavela, the greatest ruler of the Chedi dynasty, though he embraced Jainism, wanted to please his subjects among whom there were large number of forest tribes who were traditionally worshippers Śiva. The Hatigumpha inscription^[13] mentions that Kharavela patronized the orthodox Jaina School as well as the heterodox Brahmanical School with the construction of the temples of Brahmanical gods and goddesses. Bhubaneswar, being a Śivakṣetra from ancient times, it may be suggested that Śaivism must have received due patronage from Kharavela. As temple in true sense of the term had not yet emerged, it seems that, the Lord Śiva was enshrined inside the religious compounds in Phallic form during this period.

In the beginning of the Christian era Śaivism must have developed with greater ramifications but unfortunately epigraphic source sources are very scarce to throw light on the religious condition of Orissa in this period. The earliest Orissan coins^[14] contain the image of Śiva (I.e., the Kusana coins of Huviska belonging to the second century A.D.). A good number of Kusana and Puri-Kusana coins have been discovered from Śiśupālagarh, Bhajakia (Mayurbhanja), Koyama (near Dharmasala), Keonjhar, Balasore,etc. to strengthen this view. From these coins we obtain the earliest iconic evidence of the Lord Śiva worship. Similarly, the Andhra-Sata-Vāhanas from the south under the leadership of Satakarni had also tremendous influence on Kaliṅga territories during this period. The sculptural art and paintings of the Uttareśvara Śiva temple at Bhubaneswar reveal the influence of the Andra style on the growth of Śaivism in Orissa in the 2^nd century A.D. The Bhadrak Inscription of Mahārāj Gana, palaeographically assigned to the 3^rd century A.D. mentions about the images of three Brahmanical gods (Tisra Devapratimah Utsargitah). We are inclined to believed that one of the images was dedicated in the name of Lord Śiva as the expression Tisra Devapratimah may possibly refer to the Brahmanical Trinity i.e. Brahma, Viṣṇu and Śiva.

The fourth century saw the drawn of a golden age in the history of the Śaivism, the Vaiṣṇavism and other minor religious systems of the Brahmanical religion.

In the Peddadugam copper plate grant, Mahārāja Satrudamana (Damana of Erandapalla of the Allahabad Pillar Inscription) describes himself as the Lord of Girikaliṅga or hilly tracts of Kalinga with his capital at simhapura and declares himself as a devout worshipper of Damanesvara Śiva (Damanesvara Svamiah padanudhyatah). In Kalinga, though the Mathara Kings 4^th-5^th century A.D.were partrons of Vaisnavism, they had no dislike for the Śaivism. The Vasistha king Anata Varman also called himself a devout worshipper of Maheśvara very probably Śiva was worshipped here in his phallic form as per the principles laid down in the scriptures of the Lakuliśa-Pāśupata School, propounded by Lakuliśa,^[15] a historical personality, who was born at Kayarohana (Karvan of Gujurat) in the first quarter of 2^nd century A.D. Along with the military campaign of Samudra gupta, the stream of the Pāśupata school of Śaivism seems to have flown over Kośala and Kalinga in the 4^th century A.D. This school did not believe in the personal attributes of Lord Śiva and they worshipped him in the phallic form. The Lakuliśa Pāśupatas were followed by the Śaiva siddhānta system^[16] which popularized the worship of Lord Śiva in his personal attributes. The earliest known teacher of this school was, Kadambaguhavasi^[17] of the later part of the 3^rd century A.D. followed by Samkhamathikadhipati who played an important role in spreading the message of the Śaiva siddhānta system in eastern India as revealed from the Asanapat stone Inscription^[18] of Keonijhar district, palaeographically assigned to the 4^th century A.D. Thus the Śaivism was in a flourishing condition long before the advent of the Mattamayura (Śaiva Siddhānta system) and the Lakuliśa-Pāśupata cults.

The Asanapat stone inscription, containing a beautiful image of Naṭarāja, is the earliest known epigraphic evidence indicating Lord Śiva worship, in this religion with all his personal attributes. This image is a naked Urddhvaliṅga form of Lord Śiva with hands. Two upper hands hold a snake, two hands play on the flute, one hand is in the varadamudra and the other three hands hold triśula, akṣamālā and dambaru. Śiva is seen with his two attendants Nandi and Bhrukti. The image depicts the Tāṇḍava pose of Lord Śiva. The Naṭarāja is usually expected to dance over the prostrate body of an “apasmara puruṣa”^[19] but here the image has followed the local style of Tāṇḍava, accompanied by a “Vina”. The donor of the inscription is Maharāja Satrubhanja of the Nāga dynasty of the 4^th century A.D. which was, indeed, a significant epoch when the Lakuliśa-Pāśupata cult and the Śaiva Siddhānta (Mattamayura) school triumphed over the southern and the northern parts of Orissa respectively.

By 5^th century A.D.The Śaivism triumphed over Buddhism, and as such an Ashokan pillar was converted into a colossal Śivaliṅga,^[20] now enshrined in the Bhaskareśvara Śiva temple at Bhubaneswar. The Manner of this conversion indicates a violent struggle between the Buddhists and the Śaivas. The Ekamra Purāṇa^[21] terms the Buddhists as demons and the followers of Lord Śiva as gods. Caves were hewn near this Śivaliṅga for the habitation of Śaiva ascetics. Similarly, Dengapost and Sitabinji^[22] of Keonjhar district contain a number of natural rock shelters for the Śaiva ascetics probably belonging to Pāśupata sect of the Śaivism. This is proved by the existence of a Mukhaliṅgaṃ with four faces of the Lord Śiva as well as the record of the names of Lord Śiva as śaśadhara and śaśalāṅchhandhara in the Sitabinji stone inscription.

The early Gaṅgās established their rule in Kaliṅga by the end of the 5^th century A.D. They hailed from Mahendragiri and paid obeisance to Lord Gokarnesvara Śiva on the summit of this Kulagiri. According to the Ponnuturu copper plate grant, Samantavarman worshipped Gokarnesvara as Śaśāṅkaśekhara, Sacaracaraguru and the creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe. In the Narasionhapalli charter, Hastivarman calls himself a parama maheśvara,^[23] although he donated the village Rohanaka in favour of the Nārāyaṇa.^[24] This indicates that the Gaṅgā monarch believe in the synthesis of the Vaiṣṇavism and the Śaivism in Orissa from the 6^th -7^th century A.D. According to the Dhwemaliṅgaeśvara plate^[25] of the king in Gaṅga Era 184. This initiation by a teacher of the Mattamyura school must have led to firm foundation of that school of the Śaivism in Kaliṅga.

The early Nala kings of south Kosala (Koraput region and western Orissa) Arthapatiraja and Bhavadattavarman were worshippers of Lord Śiva in the 5^th century A.D. The 32 gold coins from Edenga^[26] refer to the representation of the couchant ball and crescent moon as the symbol of Śaivism in their state. In the Kesaribeda^[27] and Ritapur plates,^[28] Arthapati and Bhavadattavarman have recorded that they acquired the posterity of sovereignty through the grace of Maheśvara and Mahāsena.^[29] It is possible that under the influence of the Śaivite teachers who came to the South Kośalaand Kaliṅga from the north, the Nala rulers embraced the Śaivism in the 5^th-6^th century A.D. The Kośaleśvara temple of Vaidyanāth in Bolangir district, though belonged to the Somavaṃśī period, contains some the Śaivite sculptures, particularly an interesting figure of Kārtikeya Mahāsena, of the 6^th century A.D. belonging to the time of the Nala Kings. Bhavadattasarma was also associated with Kadamgiri⁷⁰ which seems to be identifical with Kadambaguha, the seat of the first pontiff of the Śaiva Siddhānta school. This Kadambagiri was a Śaivakṣetra located in the Koraput region of Orissa. In 6^th century A.D. Mahārāja Śrī Sambhuyasa of the Mudgala dynasty and his feudatory Śivarājā, were also the devotees of Śiva.

In the first quarter of the 7^th century A.D. Śaśāṅka, the king of Karnasuvarṇa and overload of Madhavaraja II, appeared in eastern India as a great patron of Śaivism as his coins^[30] bear the emblems of Lord Śiva, bull and the full moon. Literary traditions^[31] inform us that Śaśāṅka constructed a massive temple for Lord Tribhūvaneśvara at Bhubaneswar. Dr.K.C. Panigrahi^[32] believes that this temple has been replaced by the present great temple of Lord Liṅgarāja in the Somavaṃśī period. Śaśāṅka’s territory was extended as Kongoda. Along with the construction of this Tribhuvaneśvar temple by Śaśāṅka, it is also presumed that the early temples like the Śatṛughneśvar, the Bharateśvar,the Lakṣmaṇeśvar and the Swarṇajaleśvar belonging to the 7^th century A.D. must have been built by him or his feudatories (Sailodbhavas) who had extended their territory to the vicinity of Bhubaneswar. The Śaivism practically became the royal religion in the Sailodbhave dominion of Kongada from the middle of the 6^th century A.D. to the early part of 8^th century A.D. But they were not the upholders of the Lakuliśa-Pāśupata cult. But from the preamble of their characters^[33] we learn that they worshipped “the matted hair of Lord Śiva, which is embraced by the moon with his tender beams, resembling the clean fibres of a lotus stalk, whose tie becomes loose when Pārvatī seizes of Lord Śiva by hair, and from which the particles of ashes are washed away by the leaps of the Gaṅgetic water.” In the Sailodbhava inscriptions it is also recorded that on the summit of Mahendragiri Pulindasena, the progenitor of the family, worshipped Lord Śiva with his “matted hair, besmeared with ashes and associated with the Gaṅgā and the crescent moon on his head embracing Pārvatī as the alliṅgana pose. This is the earliest reference to the worship of Lord Śiva in the form of Umā-Maheśvara in Orissa. Several such images are found from Kriṣṇagiri, Bankadagarh, Huma, Bhubaneswar, etc, along with the composite Umā-Maheśvara image of the Khiching Museum. This Śiva of the Sailodbhava times was not terrific but a divine being who is ever serene and eternal (śāsvata śāntarupam). From these evidences it is clear that the Sailodbhava Kings dedicated their time and energy in upholding the doctrine of the Mattamayura sect under the initiative of RudraŚiva, the lord of Amarddaka Tīrtha, (identified with modern amound village of the Mayurbhanja district) and according to its tenets. It seems that during this period, centering round the Śaivism, there began some tantric and yogic practices and penances, which are indicated in the Tapang cave Inscription^[34] which reads as “Śrīkaṇṭhasya asadhamma;i.e., Śrīkaṇṭha who spreads the religion around. This Śrīkaṇṭha may be identified with the celebrated Śrīkaṇṭhacārya of the Amarddaka school. He settled for sometime in his āśrama at Tapang in the Kongoda territory (now in Puri district) of 7^th century A.D. and popularized the Śaiva Siddhānta system which was sponsored by the Amarddaka School.

During the rule of early Bhaumakaras in the 8^th century A.D., there was retardation in the progress of the Śaivism in Orissa. Although the early rulers were all devout Buddhist,^[35] they were not intolerant. Mādhavīdevī, the queen of Buddhist Sunhajaradeva I, was a saivite who burnt the temple of Mādhaveśvara Śiva at Jajpur as is known from the Hamesśvar temple inscription.^[36] In course of time, Buddhism, under the influence of tantrism, came very close to Śaivism. This led to the revival of the Śaivite activities in Orissa during the rule of the later Bhaumakares. The construction of some caves in Dhuli.^[37] And Gaṅgesa Gumpha^[38] by the Bhauma rulers for the Śaiva ascetics indicate the temporary decline in the spread of Buddhism, obviously due to the activities of the Śaivacāryas who possibly drew their inspiration from Śaṅkarācārya^[39] who visited Orissa in the 9^th century A.D. The Ekāmra Purāṇa^[40] also bears a veiled allusion to this conflict of religious ideologies. The Hindol plate of king Subhakaradev III records the donation of a village Naddilo for the worship of God Baidyanāth Bhattaraka. Subhakaradeva IV also declared himself as a “Paramamaheśvara’. The two Baud charters^[41] of Pṛthivī Mahādevī (c.894 A.D.) record the grant of Villages for the worship of Umā-Maheśvara enshrined in the temple of Nannesvara-Śiva built by Śaśīlekhā in commemoration of her deceased father Nanna. Vakula Mahādevī was also a devout worshipper of Śiva as she used the title “Parama Maheśvara” in her own charters.^[42]

In the Śaiva temples of the Bhauma epoch, the synthesis of thought of Laukaliśa-Pāśupata school, the Mattamayura school and tantric Buddhism is reflected on the face of the sculptures. According to Dr. K.C.Panigrahi^[43], the Lakuliśa images are the modified forms of Buddha in dharmacakrapravartana mudrā. The glorious example of this is the Paraśurāmeśvara at Bhubaneswar and the simhanath temple on the Mahānadī vally near Badamba. Along with two Lakuliśa images on the front façade of the Jagamohana of the Paraśurāṃśvar temple, the other significant saivite sculptures are Naṭarāja, Arddhanarisvara, marriage of Śiva-Parvatī etc. This archaeological evidence leads us to believe that the followers of the Lakuliśa-Pāśupata school joined hands with those of the Śaiva Siddhanta school of Orissan Śaivism of the 8^th century A.D. and as such Lakuliśa was accepted by the Śaivācaryas or the Mattamayura cult as an incarnation of Śiva. In this epoch, the tantric dharani proves that Buddhism lost its identity and completely merged itself with the Śaivism. Thus the tāntric form of Vajrayāna was incorporated into Śaiva tantra and Śiva who was worshipped as terrific Bhairava in the Bhauma epoch. A number of such images of Umā-Mahesvar. Bhairava, etc. have been found in the praci valley, Khiching and other temples of this period. The other important centres of the tāntric Śaivism were Virajā (Jajpur) and Hirapur, where the 64 yoginis were worshipped along with Bhairava. In the Vaital and the Śiśireśvara group of temples of Bhubaneswar, we also find the impact of tantrism as there are significant representations of Śiva as Bhairava. This fierce aspect of Lord Śiva was accepted in the Bhairava cult of Orissa in the 8^th century A.D. Due to the influence of this Bhairava cult, in the tāntric literature, jagannāth is depicted as Bhairava^[44] and Vimala as Bhairavī. This Bhairava seems to be connected with the concept of “Aja-Eka-Pada”which, in course of time, was merged in the Jagannāth cult.

Under the Bhanjas, Śaivism gained a stronghold in a considerable part of Orissa starting from Mayurbhanja to Ganjam. Their influence also spread as far as Sonepur in the Western part of Orissa. The Bhanjas trace their origin from one Ganadanda Virabhadra,^[45] a tribal chief, who was associated with the Virabhadra cult that emerged with the simultaneous rise of the Śaivism and the

Śaktism in Orissa. The Śaivite teachers who disseminated the Śaiva Siddhānta system in Kośala and Kaliṅga in the post-Gupta period, also extended considerable influence on the Bhanjas of Khijjingakota (Khiching). In the copper plate inscriptions of Ranabhanja we find the emblem of semi-full-blown lotus, a standing bull, a trident and a crescent moon. At a later stage, they worshipped Bhairava, one of the eleven Rudras, under the influence of the tāntric form of the Śaivism of the Mattamaurya school.

In the Sonepur grant, the Śatrubhanjadeva was the first Bhanja king to invoke the grace of Bhairava.

(Tad Bhairavam Haravapuh bhavatah prapatu).

Nettabhanja of Ghumsar region has invoked the grace of the Sadāśiva decorated with matted hair, crescent moon, garland of skulls, and the great serpent.

(Jatarhara Khanda Sasankekharah, Kapalamala sita bhaṣma dhusaraḥ/
Sphuran Mahapannagavaddha Karikanaḥ, SadāŚivaṃ vo Vidadhatu Saṃkaraḥ).

Later on, the Bhanjas were inspired by an eclectic outlook and contributed to the rise of Harihar cult, illustrated by the significant twin temples of Nilamadhava (Viṣṇu) and Siddheśvara (Śiva) at Gandharadī built during the time of Ranabhanjadeva. It is only with the rise of the Imperial Gaṅgās and the great Vaisnavite teacher Ramanuja, they ultimately accepted Śrīvaiṣṇavism in the 13^th century A.D.

In the South Kośala Mattamayura school of the Śaivism emerged as a triumphant faith from the time of MahāŚivagupta Balarjuna. His Ladhia plates inform us that he granted a village to Īśāṇeśvara Bhattarka at the request of his Śivaguru Sulapani who was a disciple of the Pramāthācarya. The RudraŚiva, the Śrīkaṇṭha, the Sadāśiva,the Pramāthācarya and the śulapāṇi were the Stalwar Śiva ascetics of the Mattamayur line, who by their persuasive spiritual power, exerted overwhelming influence over Balarjuna and his contemporary kings of Orissa. Balarjuna also appears to have made rich endowments for the construction of the Śaiva shrines at Sirpur near Rajpur (M.P.), Mohangiri, Belkhandi and Ranipur Jharial of Western Orissa. This sect became dominant in this religion with the rise of the Ācarya GaganaŚiva or GaganaŚiva II in the last quarter of 9^th century A.D. He seems to have built the temple of Somesvar Śiva at Ranipadraka (Ranipur-Jharial) and the shrine of 64 yoginīs^[46] along religious centre of the tantric Śaivism. At Ranipur, the Śaivism and the Śaktism were synthesized in the background of tantraicism which gave rise to the 64 yoginī cult. When the Somavaṃśīs extended their territory the Mahānadī valley, they constructed their capital at Yayatinagar^[47] which may be identified with Jagati near Baud or chaudwar near cuttack. Under their patronage several Saiyite shrines were constructed at Baud and its neighborhood. The temple of the Rāmeśvara is placed here in a star-shaped Yoni-Pīṭha attributed to the tāntric origin.^[48]

During the Somavaṃśī rule in 10^th and 11^th century A.D. The Śaivism reached the zenith of its development and enjoyed predominance over other religious sects in Orissa. There was a spate of the Śaivite activities in the coastal plains which recently came under the rule of the Somavaṃśīs. The rulers of this dynasty were staunch Śaivites as indicated by the assumption of the titile of “Paramamaheśvara’ in their official documents.^[49] They introduced the Mattamayura sect of the Śaivism in the coastal Orissa which was previously prevalent in Kośala, the original homeland of the Somavaṃśīs. As a result, the Pāśupata system lost its importance as Somavaṃśī temple bears only a few Lakuliśa images of this sect during this period. Among the Śaivite temple of this period, The Mukteśvara, the Rājarāṇī, the Brahmeśvara and the Līṅgarāja stands unique. According to a tradition prevalent in Bhubaneswar, Yayāti I^[50] built the Mukteśvara temple when he conquered the coastal tract of Utkal and said the foundation of the Yayātinagar on the bank of the Mahānadī in the 10^th century A.D. The Mukteśvara is one of the most beautiful temples of India and has been designated by Fergusson^[51] as the “gem of Orissan architecher”, by R.L.Mitra^[52] as a “Charming eptome of the perfection of the Orissan architecture” and by M.M.Ganguly^[53] as a dream realised in sandstone.” Dr.K.C. Panigrahi, in view of its architectural and iconographic peculiarities, considers it is a dividing line between the earlier and the later group of the Orissan temples. Two image of the Lakuliśa are found in this temple–one in “Dharmacakrapravarttana mudra” and the other is “bhūmisparsa mudrā”. This proves the prevalence of the Pāśupata sect and the influence of the Buddhism on the Śaiva images of the 10^th century A.D. Besides, we also notice a good number of tantric images like the Saptamātṛkās wit Virabhadra which are prominently exhibited in the artistic skill in the eight petals of a full-blown lotus placed upside down decorated on the celling of the Mukhaśālā. The Rajarani temple is a significant monument of exquisite workmanship of Indrarath^[54]. The son and successor of Bhīmaratha, and devout worshipper of Lord Śiva. The cult images carved in walls of the temple reveal its identity as a Śaiva shrine. At the very entrance of the Jagamohana, we notice two figures wearing Jatamukuta, garland or skulls and cobra which indicate the representation of the Śaivite thought of the Mattamayura school. However, in the lintel of the Jagamohana, there is also an image of the Lakuliśa in the Yogamudrā accompanied by four disciples on the side panels. In the local tradition of Yayati II is taken to be the builder of the gigantic temple of Lord Liṅgarāja, the climax of the Śaivites architecture, in saka Samvat 888^[55] (= 966A.D.). But our view is that the temple was neither built in the 10^th century, nor by Yayāti II of the 11^th century who had hardly any time at his disposal for the construction of this colossal temple.

It is also doubtful if he was really a Śaivite in his religious faith as he was a worshipper of the Ambika according to the Murajamura charter.^[56]

However, his son Udyot Kesari occupies a significant position in the history of the Śaivism in Orissa and his reign marks the climax of Śaivite art and culture in the State. Centuries of preparation under the Sailodbhavas, Bhaumakaras and the Liṅgarāja in the middle of the 11^th century A.D. The protracted wars of the Somavaṃśīs which involved the Candihara Yayati II, were brought to an end by Udyotkeśarī who spent lavishly from the royal treasury and produced these two great the Śaivite monuments of the east through artistic excellence. In this venture, he was persuaded by his preceptor Bhavadeva, the author of Tantranava and a tantric teacher, who lived in the Krttivāsakṣetra at that time. Udyotakesari wanted to represent the ideologies of the Śaivism, the Śaktism and the tantric cult in the great temple of the Brahmesvar which was caused to be erected by the orders of his mother Kolavati. The Ekāmra Purāṇa^[57] refers to the prasāda of the Brahṃeśvara as an elderly member (jyeṣṭha) of the Bhubaneswar group of the temples (Prasādaṃ prathamoyam hi kṣetre jyeṣṭha sanātana xxx Brahmeśvara-iti-khyātam sarvasurasurācitaḥ). The temple contains a number of the Śaivite image, i.e. Ekapada Śiva, Naṭarāja, Arddhanārīśvara,etc.

Ekapadā Śiva holds a trident, dambaru, and akṣyamala in his hands, wears a garland of skull around his neck and stands on apasmarapuruṣa. Such representation indicates the strong influence of the Mattamayura School of the Śaivism. The temple also contains the Śaivite and the Śākta images in the terrific form which indicate the tantric features probably due to the influence of Bhavadeva, the tantric preceptor of udyotakeśarī. However,the Śaivism in Orissa reached its high water mark when the Udyota Keśarī or Lalatendukeshari constructed his “Bhubaneswar Deula” in the middle of the 11^th century A.D. He, having extended his patronage for the construction of the temple of Brahmesvara as the pious desire of his mother, was probably determined to produce a colossal Śaiva shrine which would not only mark the zenith in the rise and growth of the Śaivism in Orissa but would also bring about a synthesis of the Vaisnavism and the Śaivism through the Harihara cult. In fact from the 5^th century to 10^th century A.D. both the Vaisnavism and the Śaivism evolved in Orissa through various stages of antithesis and synthesis and the Harihar cult reached a definite stage in the cult of Krittivāsa at Bhubaneswar. Thus Liṅgarāja of traditional fame as celebrated tutelary deity of Bhubaneswar was in reality called the Kirttivāsa in the 11^th and 12^th century A.D. It is probable that Udyotakeshari named this temple as Kirttivasa in memory of the temple of the Brahmeśvara which was called “Kirttirāja’. The first epigraphic evidence of the name Kirttivāsa is noticed in the Liṅgarāja temple inscriptions⁸⁷ of Anantarama Codagangadeva of the year 1134 A.D. However, there is no epigraphic evidence to show that Udyotakeshari was the builder of the Liṅgarāja temple, but a comparative study of the temple of the Brahmesvara and the temple of Lingaraja shows that there is considerable resemblance between the two. However, by consideration of the style of construction,the Brahmesvara seems to have been constructed before the great temple of the Liṅgarāja. The cult images and sculptures of the Liṅgarāja seem to have been more refined and polished than that of the Brahmesvar, Hence the Udyotakeshari is to be given the credit as the builder of the Liṅgarāja temple.The Śiva in his phallic form is enshrined here. The Liṅga is a natural one and is known as svayambhuliṅga. The local priests point a natural lines of the Liṅga as the line demarcating half of the Liṅga as Hari and half as Hara. The ayudha on the amalaki of the temple is represented partly by a trident and partly by half of a disc. The leaves of bilva and Tulasī which are favourites of Lord Śiva and Lord Viṣṇu respectively are used here for the worship of the deity. The sculptural representation of Nanda, Yasodā, and Śrīkṛṣṇa that appear on the southern wall of the Vimāna, lends support to the view that temple had emerged as a shrine of the Harihara in the 12^th century A.D.

The rise of the imperal Gaṅgas as the rulers of Orissa provided ample opportunity for the expansion of the Harihar cult. Anantavarmā Codagaṅgadeva was a “Paramamaheśvara’ and expressed his devotion to Lord Śiva in his Korni copper plate (S.E. 1003). But in his Korni plate (S.E. 1034) and Vizagpattam plates he declared himself as a ParamaVaiṣṇava. This change of religious faith is attributed to his coming in contact with Rāmānuja, the great exponent of the Vaiṣṇavism, who perhaps visited Puri between1107-1111 A.D. and was influence by him. Coḍagaṅga constructed the temple of the Puruṣottama the Jagannāth and the Lakṣmī at Puri. Thereafter the Śaivism lost its pre-dominant position and the Vaiṣṇavism began to dominate the religious life of Orissa.

Howeve, Coḍagaṅga continued to extend patronage to the Śaivism and visited the temple of the Kittivasa again and again under his direction the Vaiṣṇavite elements were introduced in this temple, which was already considered to be the shrine of Harihara. The Imperial Gaṅgas adored Puruṣottama Jagannāth as an embodiment Jagannāth as an embodiment of the Viṣṇu and the religious belief of the whole country was centred round him. With the rise of Sūryavaṃśīs in the 15^th century A.D. The Jagannāth consciousness was spread over the extensive land from the Gaṅges to Kāverī and the monarchs regarded themselves as servants (Sevaka) of Lord Jagannāth. In this great religious movement the Vaiṣṇavism,the Śaivism, the Saktism and other minor religious systems were incorporated.

An analysis of the history of Jagannāth indicates that Śaivism had rendered remarkable contribution to evolution of this Jagannāth cult. We have noticed earlier (Bhauma period) that Oddiyana or Orissa was a great center of the tāntric the Śaivism where Jagannāth is described as Bhairava^[58] and Vimala as bhairavī. This Bhairava cult developed in the 8^th century A.D. in Orissa initialted by Śaivite teachers of the Amardaka school. The Saptamātṛkā images along with Vīrabhadra in the Markendeśvara temple compound prove without doubt that Puri was a centre of the tāntric Śaivism during the Somavaṃśīs period and the Jagannāth had already attained celebrity as Bhairava among the Saivites. In fact, an image of the Bhairava was worshipped along with the Lord Jagannāth in the jeweled throne for a long time and it was then thrown into the sea by the priests when the throne was under repair. This shows that Lord Jagannāth was worshipped as Bhairava for centuries and with the arrival of the Imperial Gaṅgas and Ramanuja, Vaiṣṇavite traditions speedily developed around the cult of Jagannāth. H.V. Stietencron finds striking resemblance of the figure of Lord Jagannath the image of Lord Jagannāth with a Śivaliṅga and Mahiṣāmardinī in one of the panels of the temple of Konarka and concludes that image of Lord Jagannāth evolved out of Konarka and concludes that the image of Lord Jagannāth evolved out of Ekapada Bhairava. In the Bhogamaṇḍapa of the temple of Lord Jagannāth we find an image of Śiva seated on a bull, a Naṭarāja figure in Tāṇḍava pose and image of Lord Jagannāth, Lord Śiva and Goddess Durgā together. This undoubtedly strengthens this view and indicates strong Saivite influence over the cult of Lord Jagannāth. Thus in the ultimate analysis with its various ramifications Orissa contributed its own share to the assimilative character of this Jagannāth cult.

The origin of Lord Śaivism in India is traced back to the period of the Vedas, wherein the cry is found to be deified as “Rudra”.

Sāyaṇa in commenting on the word “Rudra’ occurring in RV.II.1.6, gives two explanations, one of which is to the point:

“rud duḥkhaṃ dukhaheturvā pāpādiḥ tasya drāvayitā etannāmako devo’si”—

“Rud means miserly or its cause, the sin. He who roots out the misery and its cause too, is the God called Rudra.”

The Rudra was considered to cause diseases in order to make people weep and he was prayed for appeasement and was consequently spoken of as possessing healing remedies (RV I. 43.4) Gradually Rudra was also was considered to be a protector of the cattle (RV.I.114.9) and became “Paśu-pa”. His benignant form was realised in the Śatarudrīya(TS.IV.51,VS Chap 16) as Śiva -tanuḥ’. Different appellations that we get in Śatarudrīya speak high of his divine qualities ever in the benefit of mankind. In the Purāṇas eight forms of Śiva were realised as

Sarva, Bhava, Rudra,Ugra, Bhīma, paśupati, Īśāna and Mahādeva which consequently led Kālidāśa to see Śiva in all directions in the forms of the earth, the water, the fire, the air, the ether, the sun, the moon and the sacrifice and thus says “there are few to know Him”(na śānti yāthārthyavidaḥ pinākinaḥ-Kumārasaṃbhavaṃ.). In the Purāṇas we get anecdotes with regard to the Phallic worship of Lord Śiva. It is nothing but worship of Phallus as a generative power in the then society, when population was needed for the subsistence of the society.

Later on, a philosophical interpretation was offered in support of the worship of “Liṅgaṃ” as a symbol of Lord Śiva. It is, therefore, said:

ākāśaṃ liṅgamityāhuḥ pṛthivī tasya pīṭhikā/ ālayaḥ sarvabhūtānāṃ layanālliṅgamucyate//

i.e., The sky is the liṅgam, the earth is its base and it is abode of all beings. Liṅgaṃ is so called because of its “layanaṃ’ or place of rest.

Archaeological remains at Indus valley indicates that Śaivism is a pre-Aryan concept which seems to have spread in different parts of India from the 3^rd millennium B.C. As regards Orissa, we get information from the numismatic sources from the findings of Kushana coins at Śiśupālagarh near Bhubaneswar, that Śiva was worshipped in his phallic form in the 2^nd Century A.D. during the reign Hubiska.

The earliest Śaiva temple of Gokarṇeśvar on the summit of Mahendragiri belongs to 6^th or 7^th century A.D. Mahendragiri was the seat of adoration of the early Gaṅgas, who continued to rule Kaliṅga from 498 A.D. From the Vizagpattam plates of Anantavarman Codagaṅgadeva, we come to know that five brothers from the Gaṅgā lineage came to Kaliṅga from Kolāhalpur. One of them Danarnava, was succeeded by his son Kamarnava, who founded his capital at Kaliṅganagar and constructed a magnificent temple of Madhukeśvara at mukhaliṅgaṃ (now in the Śrikakulam district of Andra Pradesh) which was the capital of Kaliṅga-nagar, identified with Nagara-Kaṭakaṃ near Mukhaliṅgam On stylistic consideration The Madhukeśvara temple is said to be later than the temple of the Parśurāmeśvara and is assigned to the 9^th or the 10^th century A.D.

The Sailodbhava kings, who left their cradle land Mahendragiri and came down to the valley of river Ṛṣkulyā, constructed a number of temple dedicated to Lord Śiva near this valley. They built some monuments near hill called Kṛṣṇagiri located at a distance of 25 kms from Khalikote, the native place of this writer, in the northen part of Ganjam district. Kṛṣṇagiriviṣaya is found to have been mentioned in the Ganjam copper plate inscription of Mādhava Varman. Phasi is the village Phasika near Kṛṣṇagiriviṣva, where Sailodbhava king Dharmarāja II fought a fratricidal war against his younger brother Mādhava. These Śailodbhavas later reached beyond the river of Ṛṣikulyā and established their political headquarters on the bank of river Śāliā near Banpur in the district of Khurdha at present. Their capital Bankāda excavated near Banpur has got ruins of a Śiva temple assigned to the 7^th Century A.D. The Paraśurāmeśvara temple (650 A.D.) built during this period in Bhubaneswar has two Lakulisa images as a proof of influence and popularity of the Pāśupate school of Śaivism in Orissa.

The aṣṭaśambhus around Khallikote Athagarh area are:—

Mahāliṅgeśvara [Mahalingeshwar] of Julunda,
Dāṇḍeśvara [Dandeshwar] of Kodala,
Mukteśvara [Mukteshwar] of Hati-ota,
Bholeśvara [Bholeshwar] of Bolaśvara,
Kāleśvara [Kaleshwar] of Bana-nai-Kharida,
Guṇīśvara [Gunishwar] of Sikula,
Karṇeśvara [Karneshwar] of Athagarh and
Maṇikeśvara [Manikeshwar] of Phasi.

[They] stand eloquently in support of the popularity of the Śaivism in Orissa of the above temples Dandeśvara at Kodala was built by Param Māheśvarī Daṇḍī Mahādevī of Ganjam Grant, Āmbagāon Grant and Śāntigrām plates.

According to the “Ekāmra Purāṇa’, One Chandra or Śaśāṅka constructed a temple of Tribhubaneśvara in Ekāmra. Some think this Śaśāṅka to be the king of Gauḍa but no such temple of Śaśāṅka exists at present to prove the so called association Śaśāṅka, the king of Gauḍa. Since Ekāmra Purāṇa was written in imitation of a Purāṇa, the name Candra or Śaśāṅka either may not at all be historical and may be either a divine ascription or Śaśāṅka either may not at all be historical and may be either a divine ascription or relare to a king of Somavaṃśa, which ruled after the Śailodbhavas. It is undoubtedly certain that the period rule of the Somavaṃśīs was the golden age in the annals of the Śaivism in Orissa, when the Magnificent Śaivite temples of Mukteśvar, Brahmeśvara and Liṅgarāja were built at Ekāmra kṣetra or Bhubaneswar. The above three temples Mukteśvara is considered to be “the gem of Orissan architecture” by Fergusson.^[59]

The kings of Somavaṃśa extended their territory on the Mahandi Valley.

They constructed their capital called Yajāti-nagar, which is identified with the village Jagati (Orissa District Gazetter-Bolangir, 1968, P.45) near Baud on the bank of the Mahanadi river by Dr. N.K. Sahu or Choudwar near Cuttack by

K.N. Mohapatra. Several Śaivite temples are found to have been constructed at Baud and its neighborhood under the patronage of the Somavaṃśī kings. According to the traditional accounts of Mādalā pāñji the temple of Liṅgarāja was built by Yajāti Keśarī, Ananta Keśarī and Lalāṭendu Keśari some consider the last two names to be two other names of Udyota Keśarī. Caṇḍihara Yayāti-II (C.1020-1040) began to build the Liṅgarāja Temple, which was completed by his son Udyota Keśarī (C.1040-1065). The temple of Brahmeśvar was built just before the construction of the temple of Liṅgarāja. Accumulated and crystallized experience of several Centuries of preparation to put up temples of Śiva under the Śailodbhavas, the Bhaumakaras and the Somavaṃśīs resulted in the culmination of the Liṅgarāja temple.

Centering round this temple of Liṅgarāja many books in Sanskrit, viz. Ekāmra Purāṇa, Ekāmra–Chandrikā, Svarṇādri-mahoday, Kapilasaṃhitā of anonymous authorship and Lakṣmīdhara’s Śaivakalpadruma and Śaivacintāmaṇi were written, since the Śaivacintāmaṇi deals in particular about the Pūjā or worship of practice in the temple of Liṅgarāja and since this book is referred and followed in the temple as an authoritative text, the discussion shall be restricted to the temple of Liṅgarāja.