Part 1 - Vedic Foundation of Śaivism

The Lord Śaiva tradition has a long background which draws are attention. If we look towards the entire Vedic Literature, Rudra is found to be often used in invoking protection from natural disasters and calamities. Hence, the word “Rudra” is found in the Vedic Literature.

There are various “Rudras” in the Vedic period and post Vedic period combined with local and village deities of some what similar nature and popular origin. Yajurveda speaks of the universal pervasion of the Rudra in the cosmic worlds. Śatarudrīya is the heart of the Rudraṣṭādhyāyī portion of the Yajurveda. Śiva Saṅkalpa Mantras are a prayer for the spiritual composure of mind. The celebrated hymns called Śatarudrīya forms a part in the Vājasaneya Saṃhitā of “Śukla Yajurveda”.

In Purāṇas we get anecdotes with regard to the phallic worship of Śiva. Śiva, the createar and destroyer is said to be known as Bhava (Faith, love or the pure heart)” It may be added that Umā Haimāvatī, the spouse of siva is also eulogized as a supreme deity in KenaUpaniṣad.^[1] Śaivism, as a distinct cult, therefore goes back to a very early period. This clearly shows that worship of Śiva was gaining ground and that Rudra became the foremost god of the Vedic pantheon. The cult of Rudra Śiva attained the popular name of Śaivism in the

Epic Purāṇic period. Śaivism in its turn earned the appellation of Pāśupatism a synthesis of Vedic and popular ideas. Śaivism flourished increasingly under guptas. The Mathura Pilar inscription of Chandra Gupta II^nd Vikramaditya dated 380A.D. mentions the 10^th guru from Kuśika one of the four direct disciples of Lakuliśa.^[2]

Probably the earliest Śiva Liṅga is that bearing an inscription dated 436 A.D. and found at Karmadanda in fyzabad. The God Śiva was also taken out in a procession called Devadaroni in this inscription. The inscription mention the worship of Śiva under various named such as Bhirava, Bhutapati, Īśvara, jayesvara, Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Pāśupati, Śambhu, Śiva, Trīpuraṇṭaka, Sarva etc^[3].The emperor Skanda Gupta was named after Skanda, son of Śiva. Thus clearly indicates the devotion of Gupta emperor towards Śaivism.

The emperor Skanda Gupta (restruck) the silver coins of the previous rulers; the coins show on reverse the figures of a bull which must have been bull Nandi.

The Śiva sect of Maheśvara was flourishing in Mathura as stated in Mathura Pillar inscription.^[4]

It is nothing but worship of Phallus as a generative power in the then society, when population was needed for the subsistence of society. The Ekāmra Purāṇa stated that one Candra or Śaśāṅka constructed a temple of Tribhubaneśvar in a Ekāmra kṣetra.

Lord Śiva is also worshipped in eight forms. Śiva’s name inciuded in eight forms of Āditya (sun) Bhāskarakara, Bhānu, Ravi Arka, Brahmā, Rudra and Viṣṇu.^[5] The eight froms of Śiva are described as consisting of five elements of the Alma, the sun and moon. The Gaṇas of Śiva are also famous. The various passages in the Mahābhārata and the Purāṇas give detailed descriptions of the

Gaṇas of the Śiva. The Skanda Purāṇa narrates that Nandi, Bhiṛṅgi, Mahākāla, Skandasvāmī, and others are the great Gaṇas (Mahāgaṇa). The Skanda Purāṇa refers about eleven crores of Gaṇas.

Further Śaivism is not only a one single religion but many other cults also had their influence on this religion, The Liṅga cults attains a unique position. The story of Liṅgaobhavamūrti clearly proves the fact how a particular prominence demanded for the cult even as compared to Brahma and Viṣṇu. The Gudimallam and the (Bhita icons) rather represent the transitional stage of this India. Lord Śiva worship is closely associated with Liṅga worship. The idea became in full vogue during 5^th and 6^th Century A.D.

Lord Śiva worship is also closely attached with nature worship. The greatest example is worship of Śiva as Pāśupati. This kind of worship is prevalent from the time of Indus valley civilization. Here Śiva is described as the leader of all Paśus.

Serpent Worship also had an influence on Śaivism. Serpent worship has been quite common in Ancient India. They were worshiped for prosperity and off spring. Serpent is supposed to confer fertility on barren women. They guard the treasures buried in the ground and award them to humans. God Śiva who is the third god of Hindu Trimūrti in which he represents the principle of destruction serpents, emblems of eternity form his ear-rings called Nāga Kuṇḍala.

It is generally held that Hinduism of which Śaivism forms one of the important sects, owes its origin to Pre-Vedic, non-Aryan Indus or pre-Indus religions, supposed to be characterized by iconolatry and that Vedism incidentally occurred more or less like an interlude, leaving influence of flimsy character over Hinduism with its avowed allegiance. On the other hand, the reflection of earlier Hinduism could be found mirrored in Vedism.

This conjecture, especially in caste of Śaivism, is based mainly on a seal discovered at Mahenjodaro-depicting a three-faced a three-faced nude male figure, having horns, seated on a stool, in so called Yogic posture, with penis erectus, surrounded by a few animals, etc. Through the inscription of six or seven syllables appearing on the top of the seal cannot be satisfactorily explained, it is connected by some scholars with Śiva of classical Hinduism.

In this state of affairs, we have to examine as to what reflections of Śaivism, if it is earlier, have been mirrored in the Vedic interlude, which may now form the Vedic foundation of Śaivism.

In earlier Vedic hymns the word “ŚIVA” is used not as a proper noun of any deity, but as an attribute to more than one deity. It is stated that in the Yajurveda Saṃhitā^[6] the word Śiva occurs as a proper name of a deity. However, according to the tradition preserved by Kātyāyana, which is based on Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa^[7] the word Śiva in this formula is addressed to a razor utilized for sacrificer’s shaving and not to any deity.

The tribes named Viṣāṇinaḥ and Śaivāsaḥ are referred to, side by side in Ṛgveda^[8] , as being antagonist to Sudās and Bharata in Dāśarājñā war. If it is tenable that Śiva as a name of a deity is earlier to the name of tribe viz, Śaivāsaḥ, this verse may suggest the existence of Śiva cult, contemporary to Sudās and Bharata of Ṛgveda. The term Viṣāṇinaḥ meaning–bearing horns is also connected by some scholars with the Indus image decorated with horns. These two terms taken together therefore may suggest that the tribes following the Śiva-cult may be using the horns for decoration.

Besides stray references to Rudra, there are about six sūktas^[9] in Ṛgveda which are exclusively or partly devoted to Rudra. One sūkta is devoted to Soma and Rudra, wherein Rudra is held as a fierce God. However, “He” combines in himself the malevolent as well as benevolent, terrific and pacific, demonic and anglic aspects. It is held that but for his healing aspect he could have hardly been accepted as a God.

The “Munisūkta^[10]” of the Ṛgveda again shows the ascetic-Yogic atmosphere and may be related to Śaivite tradition of Yoga.

The term Śiśnadevāḥ^[11] appering in the Ṛgveda may be taken to be related to the tribes worshipping phallus. The term according to Sāyaṇa may however refer to such persons as are always indulged in sexual pleasure, not practising celibacy.

Out of many Śaiva Purāṇas, we may here, by way of specimen, refer to Kūrma Pūrāṇa only for our purpose.

Kūrma-Purāṇa narrates the story of Suśila^[12], a son Śikhaṇḍin. Suśila happens to meet a mahāmuni named Śvetāśvatara the best of Mahā-Pāśupata, besmeared with ashes, who narrated to his disciple the lore saturated with Vedic knowledge for releasing the paśu-pāśas, Śvetāśvatara Muni said-oh Yogins, having studied the Vedic school patronaged by me, contemplate on Niṣkala Śiva and reach Mahādeva. Here the Purāṇa clearly refers to the Upaniṣad named after Śvetāśvatara, as a Yogic source of Śaivism in which the concepts of the divine figure are found culminated.

According to Caraṇavyūha, the Śvetāśvatara School belongs to Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda. It is an important Upaniṣad which Śaṅkāracārya has commented upon. Like Śvetāśvatara, Kaṭhopaniṣad expressly states that Ātmā cannot be attained by learning by instructions and by intelligence. To him alone, it revels its subtle form whom it chooses.

It may also be noted that Kaṭha in this regard refers to Dhātuprasāda, while Muṇḍakopaniṣad, to jñānaprasāda.^[13]

I may be allowed to the attention of Scholars to the commentary ŚrīmatŚaṅkarācārya on Br.Sū, 3.25, where he clearly admits the grace of God in this context. He states^[14] just as when the power of sight withdrawn owing to cataract is restored with the potency of medicine, even so, only to some rare being whose spiritual darkness has been removed by the discipline of meditation and who has attained fulfillment through the grace of God, the realization is restored.

Activity is regarded by the Śaivites as not an adjunct of Īśvara but his specific nature^[15]. His activity is summed up in the five–fold act of Sṛṣṭi, Sthiti,

Saṃhāra, Vilaya and Anugraha. According to this theory, Īśvara is not inactive, activity belongs to him and māyā derives its phenomenon in definite form. Māyā is not an illusion but His creative power. That is why Śvetāśvatara Up.^[16]

Equates māyā with Prakṛti. The five faces of Śiva reveal these five-fold activites. The faces are given the mythological names, viz. Sadyojāta, Vāmadeva, Aghora, Tatpuruṣa and Īśāna. The mantras related to all these five faces of Lord Śiva are collected^[17].

In the introduction to his Bhāṣya on this anuvāka Sāyaṇa states-“mahādevasambandhiṣu Pañcavaktreṣu madhye.” etc. Bhaṭṭabhāskara also remarks-Sadyojātanāmāni pañcavidyāpravartakāni. Besides the above formulas TĀX.18 also collects the formulas wherein Rudra is referred to as Ambikāpati and Umāpati.^[18] It may, however, be noted that TS I.8.6^[20] refers to ambikā as a svasṛ of Rudra or Tryambaka. Kenopaniṣad, 3.3.12 mentions Haimavatī Umā^[21].i.e. Umā, the daughter of Himavatī. On pañcavaktra theory,

Prof. J. Gonda^[22] states–“In course of time, these five faces were made the central element of a classification in which they were identified with parts of Śiva’s body, ontological principles, the organs of sense and action, the subtle and gross elements, etc. Each of Śiva’s faces corresponds to or is identical with one of components of the five groups, which according to the Sāṃkhya school of thought constitute the 26 principles (Tattvas). This system is an attempt to explain Śiva being the All and the Universe being exclusively composed to aspects and manifestation of God. The five faces are collectively known as the Pañca Brahmas^[23] and moreover are associated with the five Sadākhyas i.e. items bearing the name “being”, “sat’-which are assumed to have evolved from

God’s five-fold creative energy, dynamic and sacred power (Śakti) and in which he dwells in his aspect called Sadāśiva the Eternal Śiva;^[24] the most supreme Being.

brahma śivo me astu sadāśivom/

Cūlikopaniṣad or Cūḍikopaniṣad, otherwise called as Māntrikopaniṣad, according to Paul Deussen, “may have found its place at a time when the theistic Yoga developed out of the Sāṃkhya doctrine, which had not still been finalized systematically and would be of a special value as a proof of transition.” The Atharvanic tradition of Śaivism in its Brahmacārī and Vrātyā Sūktas has been clearly referred to by this Upaniṣad. It states As Brahman in esoteric lores: of Mantras in a series of words him proclaim the Atharvaṇas, the top most sons of Bhṛgu as Bhahmacārī, as Vrātya, as Skambha and as Palita (grey with hair), as anaḍvān (bull). He proclaims the Bhṛgu work as Śarva, Bhava and Rūdra. In the prescriptions coupled with aphorisms of Atharvaṇs, the Lord is praised.” Atharvaveda XI.5 constitutes the Bhrahmacārisūkta, the 12 th formula of which is supposed to symbolically point to the penis erectus character of Lord Śiva, a Yogin.

Out of these; the Vrātya Sūkta in Atharvan is very important.

Vrātya is defined as a man of a mendicant class or one who has not undergone the initiation of saṃskāras. However, in Atharvaveda-Vrātya Sūkta, Vrātya Sūkta states^[25]. There was a Vrātya, just going about, stirred up Prajāpati. Prajāpati saw in himself Gold. He generated that. That became one that become great, that becomes chief, that become Brahman therewith he had progeny. He increased. He became great, He became Mahādeva. He compassed the Lordship of Gods. He became Īśāna. He became the sole Vrātya.”

The āgams^[26], as cited by Sayana, declare that Lord Śiva is revealed in 8 forms viz, Sarva, Pāśupati, Ugra, Rudra, Bhava, Īśvara, Mahādeva and bhīma. In Atharvaveda XV.5 (Vrātya Sūkta) the seven out of^[27] eight forms of Īśvara are referred to. These Atharvaveda-Vratya hymns record the then prevalling religious practices in which Yoga plays an important role. This is the mythology of Mahādeva as depicted in the Vrātya Sūktas of Atharvaveda

It is interesting to note here, the remarks of Sāyaṇa in his introduction to Vrātya Sūkta, does not refers to a Vrātya Sūkta. He states all that has been narrated in the Vrātya sūkta, does not refer to a Vrātya i.e. one who has not undergone the Upanayana saṃskara and consequently is not included in the Vedic discipline, but refers to a great pious Philosopher reckoned by all; but hated by those Brahmins who are eternally indulged in performing sacrifices (with desires).

Similarly in AVXI.2.5^[28] at least six out of eight names of Lord Śiva have been referred to.

Further Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa narrates a mythology which accounts for the 8 names of Rudra identified with Agni.^[29] A son was born to Samvatsara and Uṣas. He cried. Prajāpati said to him why do you cry? He said I have no name given to me give me a name. Prajāpati said to him–Thou art Rudra Śarva,

Paśupati, Ugra,Aśani,Bhava,Mahādeva and Īśāna. These then are the eight forms of Agni. Śatapatha Br. Clearly states that these eight forms are related to

Agni. Taittirīya Saṃhitā also tries to equate the concept of Rudra with Agni.^[30]

It may be noted that Agni here, not only means the sacrificial fire, but the pile of Uttaravedi in 5 or more layers, constructed at the north of Vedi.

Pt.Laxmaṇāshāstri Joshi, in this introduction to Dharmakośa states that^[31] some of the numerous shapes of the fire altar bear a resemblance to the Liṅga. The altar of the Nāciketa-rites, in particular is the Liṅgas haped and that there is a temple ground to infer that the altar construction was a source of some features of Śaivism.

Regarding Nāciketa Cayana, TBr. States that prajāpati pilled a Nāciketa citi, with a desire to become eldest of all, to obtain fame and to obtain progeny (Prajanana). Further it states that the prajanana^[32] is threefold, viz, male virile power, the female organ of generation and her womb. This is a typical symbol of Divine Procreative Energy, suggesting the Liṅga and Yoni worship, Śiva and Śakti or Puruṣa and Prakṛti worship. It may be noted that besides few prāpāṭhakas devoted to Agnicayana in TBr., and TĀ, the Taittiriya school has devoted two kāṇḍas (out of seven) to Agnicayana in its saṃhitā. In fact all Yajurvedic schools attach great importantance to Agnicayana.

The chapters of famous Śatarudrīya and Vaśordhārā, otherwise known as namaka and camaka adhyāyas, have been included in AGNI sections of all Yajur-Vedic schools. The concept of Rudra-Śiva is a much discussed topic and the writers on this topic have mostly drawn from Agnikāṇḍa, especially Śatarudrīya of Yajurvedic schools. I shall therefore put of the quintessence of Śatarudrīya, only in a nut–shell. Śatarudrīya mentions of Lord Śiva with more than hundred names, including Bhava, Śarva, Rudra, Paśupati, Ugra, Bhīma, Śiva, etc., and in many forms including Vrāta and Vrātapati.

Agnicayana explicitly reveals two forms of Agni-Rudra^[33] i.e. dreadful and Śiva i.e. auspicious. By Śatarudrīya offering, his dreadful form is soothed and by Vaśordharā offering his auspicious form is propitiated. It is very apparent that Śarva, Rudra, Ugra and Aśani or Bhīma are terrific fors while Bhava, Paśupati, Mahādeva and Īśāna are pacific forms. Bṛhad-jābālopaniṣad professes that Agni^[34] and Soma have transformed in the form of Universe. The Rūdra, the terrific form of Tejas i.e. Agni or Sūrya and the Soma, the pacific form are related to water and wind respectively. Thus it tries to explain that the Rūdra and Śiva forms taken together may indicate the ever-creative nature of the Universe.

Atharvaśīras^[35] and Jābālopaniṣad give in detail the Śaivite practices of besmearing the body with ashes and wearing Rudrākṣa etc. The concept of the composite form of Śiva and Sūrya is found in Śaivism.

The following mantra in TS IV.5.1envisages this concept.

asoṃ yastāmro aruṇa uta babruḥ sumaṅgalaḥ
  aso yovasarpati nīlagrīvo vilohitaḥ/
utainaṃ gopā adṛśatradṛtrudahāyaḥ//

(The red and pink, the brownish and auspicious, who creeps away, blue-necked and ruddy; Him the cowherbs have seen, Him the ladies carrying water-jars have seen. Him all the creatures have seen. He, thus seen, be gentle to us.)

Urdha-retastva (i.e. keeping the Semen above, living in chastity-MW) and virūpākṣatva (having eyes in odd numbers) are well known characteristics of Śiva.

The following verse of TĀ x.12 forms this picture of Śiva—

ṛtaṃ satyaṃ paraṃ brahma puruṣaṃ kṛṣṇapiṅgalam
ūrdharetaṃ virūpākṣaṃ viśvarūpāya vai namaḥ//

(Our homage to cosmic law, the ultimate Truth, the transcending Brahman, the Universal man, blackish and brown-keeping his semen above being a Yogin-having odd eyes, taking universal forms)

Cp Sāyaṇa on this verse—

tādṛśa brahma svbhaktānugrahāya umāmaheśvarātmakaṃ puruṣarūpaṃ bhavati. Tatra dakṣiṇe maheśvarabhāge kṛṣṇa varṇa. Umā bhāge vāme piṅgala varṇaḥ. sa ca yogena svakīyaṃ reto brahmarandre dṛtvā ūrdvaretā bhati. trinetratvād virūpākṣaḥ. etc.

Sāyaṇa thus clearly sees in this verse the concept of Ardha-nārīśvara character of Lord Śiva.

Thus Śaivism in its Rudra form and Yogic form is found reflected in Ṛgveda. Yajurvedic Śatarudrīya provides a new starting point, revealing the Agni with its two forms,viz, Rudra and Śiva. The TĀ and Śatapatha shed light on five faces and eight mūrtis of Rudra-Śiva. Athavaveda may be regarded as an amalgam of two stratus of society viz. classes and masses, representing a transitional stage between the Rudra and systematic philosophy of Śaivism as culminated in Śvetāśvatara and Bṛhadjābāla. The later Upaniṣads like Atharvaśiras and jābāla give in details some particular characteristics of the Śaivism viz. Bhasma dhāraṇa and Rudrakṣa etc.

To sum up: all these extensively cited Vedic references from the Ṛgveda to the Upaniṣads may suggest that the religion and philosophy of the Śaivism has its deep foundation in Vedic Literature. The scholars however are free to maintain that Śaivism owes its origin to pre-Vedic non-āryan Indus Civilisation. But in that case one need to employ more care connecting it to the Indus seals, particularly when the pictographs of them still remain to be satisfactorily deciphered and chronology is not beyond doubt.

While interpreting and identifying the Indus seals with Śiva, his Vedic and Purānic iconographical characteristics viz, bearing bow and shafts^[36], wearing upavīta^[37] having blackish neck^[38] and golden arms^[39] and yellowish braided and knotted half^[40] etc., may also be well considered. It may however be noted that a verse from the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā,^[41] (which may be a later interpolation) states that Śiva is antecedent to Devas, Asuras and Ṛṣis, the poets of the Vedas.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

Ancient India, p.176

[2]:

Gupta Empire, p.141

[3]:

Ibid,p.131

[4]:

Ibid

[5]:

The age of Imperial Unity,p.459

[6]:

śivo nāmāsiḥ (yajurveda Saṃhitā, 3.63)

[7]:

atha keśaśmaśrūptvā (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, 2.6.2.19)

[8]:

unmāditā mauneyena vāto ā tasthimā vayaṃ/ (ṚgVeda 8.136.3)

[9]:

mā śiśnadevā’pi guḥ ṛtaṃ naḥ/(Ṛg.Veda.Vii.21.5)dnan śiśndevānabhivarpasā bhūta
Cp. Sāyana on VII.21.5-Śiśne na dīvyanti krīdanta iti Śiśnadevāḥ.
On Ṛg.X.99.3,
Cp.Yaska IV.19 Śiśnadevā brahmacarcāḥ/

[10]:

Kūrma Purāṇa I.13.22

[11]:

Kaṭha.Up.2.28

[12]:

Ibid.2.20

[13]:

Br.Sū,3.25

[14]:

mahārthamañjarī,p.52

[15]:

Śvetāśvatra,Up 1.3

[16]:

Ibid,4.10

[17]:

sadyo jātaṃ prapadyāmi sadyo jātāya vai namaḥ/bhave bhave nātibhave bhajasva māṃ bhavodbhavāya namaḥ/ vāmdevāya namo jeṣṭhāya namaḥ śreṣṭhāya namo rudrāya namaḥ//(TĀX.43-47)

[18]:

TĀX.18 (namo hiraṇyabāhaye hiraṇyapataye’mbikāpataye umāpataye namaḥ) 19. TS I.8.6

[19]:

TĀX.18 (namo hiraṇyabāhaye hiraṇyapataye’mbikāpataye umāpataye namaḥ)

[20]:

TS I.8.6

[21]:

Kenopaniṣad,3.3.12

[22]:

A History of Indian Literature Śaivism (p.15.7)

[23]:

TĀX 43(VI.43)

[24]:

TĀX 47 (brahma Śivo me astu sadāśivohm)

[25]:

Atharvaveda XX.I.6

[26]:

Sāyaṇa on Atharvaveda XI.2.1

[27]:

Atharvaveda XV.5(Vrātya Sūkta)

[28]:

Atharvaveda XI.2.5(Eight names of Śiva)

[29]:

SBr.VI.1.3.8-16

[30]:

Cp rudra vā eṣa yadagniḥ/ TS 5.4.3.)

[31]:

0. Sāyaṇa on Atharvaveda XI.2.1

[32]:

Atharvaveda XV.5(Vrātya Sūkta)

[33]:

TS.5.7.3.9

[34]:

Brj.Up.2.1.9

[35]:

Atharvasira Upaniṣad

[36]:

TS IV.5.1-namaste rudra manyava utota eṣave namaḥ/Ts.IV.5.3 (namaste astu danvaye/)namo niṣiṅgaṃṇa eṣudhimate/ Cp TS. IV.5.7 etc.

[37]:

TS.IV.5.2-namo harikeśāya upavītine/

[38]:

TS.IV.5.6.

[39]:

TS.IV.5.2.

[40]:

TS.IV.5.5, IV,5.2.-Namo harikeśaya

[41]:

Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā II.7.1 (Devānāṃ ca ṛṇīṇāṃca asurāṇāṃ ca pūrvajaṃ/)