Chariots of War in ancient India

Chariots, like forts, have had a grand role to play in ancient warfare. While waging an offensive battle, warchariots have found more favour with battle-experts of yore, than other components of war like horses, elephants and the common soldiers fighting on foot. Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika records a vivid description of such chariots of war with their construction and ornamentation. Three reasons : Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika declares that whether he is a sovereign or ruler of a small state, a king should have warchariots (yuddharha-ratha) for the following reasons. To again victory in war, to maintain steady prosperity of his empire and lastly, to decorate the army (131.4-5). In view of such important purposes that could be accomplished by chariots of war, these had come to be invariably associated with the army of any ruler of significance and were regarded as 'prized possessions' for kings, both in war and peace.

598 Its Construction : The construction of such a chariot begins with king's inviting and suitably honouring artisans, well-versed in the science of architecture, with garments etc. who, in turn, are said presentation of new to worship Vighnesa, the lord of obstacles to mark the beginning of such an effort. 94 As components, Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika prescribes new planks of the Acacia catechu wood which are slaksna Sara (Khadira of (smooth and polished) and sutasta (suitably chiselled). The adharapitha (supporting pedestal) of such a chariot is square or octagonal in shape, measuring five eubits on all sides and the corners, fastened strong with iron-plates. Then, to the corners are fixed four or eight pillars with round-tops. A variegated crest (Sikhara), made of various metals (nanadhatu) forms the front of the chariot while the wear and the sides are covered in a full-proof manner (nIrandhra) with sara planks. Below the adharapitha is firmly fixed a wooden axle with the help of pegs (kilakas) that are further secured by sharp iron nails (ganku). To both ends of the axle are now fitted two wheels, the outer circumference of which are plated with iron-spokes. 94. as Sukraniti (4.7.60) mentions iron also a material (Lauha saramaya).

599 Two linch-pines of iron (avomani) with rounded tops, are pierced at the outer faces of the axle to hold the wheels secure to their places. Another strong and polished pole known as 'Kubara is then fitted centrally to the axle at the front-end of which is fastened the shaft called yuga (yoke). At both ends of this yoke are laid hold a pair of 95 horses, mules (asvatara) or Oxen.(5-16) Ornamentation: A superstructure so made, is to be wrapped with sheets of gold, silver or some auspicious and painted metal-covering. The outer ridges of roof Valabhi (turret), on all sides, should be decorated with golden motiffs of swans, peacocks etc. The Sikhara (crest) of such a chariot is generally not without a banner, bearing the royal insignia or mark of the desired deity. But we observe that Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika while prescribing option, records its decided preference to a banner with mark of Garuda, that is mounted atop the crest of a war-chariot (dhvajam garudacihnitam). (17-19). Stock of Weapons : When such a chariot is ready, it should have reserve of the following weapons in it. Weapons like 95. In the above account we miss one important factor namely, the measurement. See Arthasastra which gives measurements like (10 X 6-12) Purusas (Arthasastra 2.33.3-4)

600 bows, arrows, swords, barbed missile (Prasa), lances (tomara), Cudgels (yasti), discs (cakra) , spears (sula), battle-axes (kuthara), Clabs (kheta), mallethammer (mudgara), missile (kamzana) and other ferocious weapons connected with war, form the great weaponry of such a chariot. (20-21). The Rathin: Thus, a chariot which is strong (hard) like Vaira and immitates the rumblings of thunder, when 96 in motion, awaits the mounting of a warrior (rathin) who is of calm disposition, an expert in war, after fighting many a battle (nanavuddhavisarada), is gifted with swift movement of hand, has a wide chest, covered with strong armour (sudrdhavyudhakankata), tied to his waist and wearing a foot-wear (amuktapadakanckuka). Being adroit in handling weapons of various kinds, he is said to be accessible to enemy's secrets (paramarmaina) and possesses a magestic personality. Such a warrior, Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika enjoins, should be carefully chosen, whose chivalry has already attained fame (prakhyatapaurusa) (21-24). - 96. Besides rathin, we have also references to Maharathin who can single-handedly fight against ten thousand warriors and Atiratha who can stand against amita soldiers. See Sridhara on (1.6) of Bhagavadgita , Dixitar pp 13-14, Sabdakalpadruma p.669 etc.

601 The Sarathin To man the chariot of such a hero, a suitable charioteer (sarathin) is selected by the king. Various qualities with which he should be endowed can be summarised as follows: While staying with all the paraphernalia (upaskara) of war, the Sarathin is a far knowledgeable person in the pros and cons of war. He must have the talent to study the mind (behaviour) of horses and in critical moments, he must have the where-withal to safeguard with ease, the horses, the fighter and himself. (25-26) The place of Sarathin is near the shaft (kubara) at the front-end and two more persons well-experienced in war serve as wheel-guards at the rear. In between the charioter and the wheel-guards, lies the place where the chariot-warrior is ensconced. (27) Variety : Besides such a war-chariot, Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika informs us that other types were also preferred namely, chariots with three or five compartments (kaksa) and with still beautiful tufts, decked with precious jewels, wrapped with variegated metal-sheets and fluttering numerous colourful banners, which are described to be further embellished with motiffs of peacocks and flamingoes. Ladden with complete weaponry, such chariots often possess four-wheels and are drawn by four horses. These are manned by skilled charioteers and

602 wheel-guards and are commanded by warriors of great fame (maharathin). (28-31) A king is advised to have all varieties of chariots with the help of which he defeats the enemy and eternally rules over his kingdom. It is also believed (in a magical way) that a chariot does fulfil all the desires of a king at war (a 11). (32) Panegyrics: Now follows a number of penegyrics on chariots. A king, so enjoins Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika, gets all his wishes fulfilled in war with the help of a chariot and where myriads of soldiers fail, a single charioted warrior succeeds. Continuing further, the author alludes to the victory of Lord Ramchandra over Ravana which could be easily accomplished with the chariot of Indra. Other kings like yayati and Nahusa are also stated to have conquered the whole earth with the help of chariots etc. And, therefore, concludes the author that the necessity of possessing chariots of various sizes with all their paraphernalia becomes a royal prerogative for kings who desire to gain victory in war (32-38). Observation : As the foregoing description reveals, Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika describes the construction of a chariot which is fit to be used in

603 war (yudaharha). Kautilya's Arthasastra (2.33.5) also mentions six types of chariots, namely, deva, puspa, sangrama, parivanika, parapurabhigamika and vainavika. We feel that the description in Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika may at best resemble the samerama type of Kautilya or the syandanaratha as described in the 97 Pratapasinhodaya of Gopala. A chariot being a component of the war-machinery, since quite ancient times, references to chariots, charioteers and chariot-warriors are copiously strewn throughout Indian literature from the times of the Vedic Aryans. Even the civilisation that grew around Mohenjodero and Harappa was 98 fully 'Cognisant with the wheeled vehicle'. Manasa (2.7.685-86) also advises the king that he should have such chariots in his four-fold army, the chariots in which are stored a host of weapons, which have banners and them are flags aflutter, have four horses yoked to it, is manned by a stout charioteer and commanded by a brave warrior. S The mention of a varied host of weapons in a chariot reminds us of the multi-dimensional-skill of a chariot- 97. 98. An unpublished manuscript of Poona University Jayakar Library No.726. It is a paper Manuscript written in Nagari characters by one Gopal L a courtpoet of last Maratha king of Satara (1808-1855) It also purports to be a royal manual in the line of Yuktikalpataru or Sivatattvaratnakara In the chapter called Rathapariksa, the the above reference is found. S.D.Singh, Ancient Indian Warfare .. 'Leiden, 1965,p.23.

604 warrior who is supposed to be an expert in the use of various weapons (sarvasastrastrakusala) (131.84) Inspite of the combined merit a chariot e 99 it affords in giving speed and surprise to the enemy, has some limitations nevertheless. On a plain ground, more so, in a pre-determined site, it might be efficacious. But once such practices were discontinued and wars started being fought on unfamiliar grounds, chariots began loosing their utility and scholars atrribute to it a secondary place after the Epic period. Singh rightly presupposes that 'after the Epic period, chariots in a war, perhaps 100 played only a second fiddle till the 19 th century'. However, from the description of war-chariots and their utility it appears that the author of Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika is still under the strong influence of the custom of the 99. "It could ably and effectively resist the attacks of the enemy, suddenly occupy positions of advantage and quickly abandon disadvantageous situations, easily rally the soldiers fallen into disorder, break through the ranks of the enemy, and threaten enemy's rear". Arthasastra (10.4), Nitiprakasika (6.62-63) translation V.R.R.Dixitar, WIAD, P.162. 100. Singh, Ancient Indian warfare .... P.52. Dixitar, Dixitar, p.166 also supports this by citing examples from Bana's Harsacarita (7 th A.D.) where the description of Harsa's army contains no reference to chariots and similar is the case with the army of Pulakesin II. 641 A.D.

605 day in the first place or may it be that he is trying to exalt the already decadent practice of charioted warfare under the patronising influence of a king. Of the two, the latter proposition appears to be more convincing to us.