Part 1.3 - Evolutes of Prakṛti

i) Mahat or Buddhi

According to Sāṃkhya system the course of evolution follows a definite order. Mahat or buddhi is the first product of Prakṛti. Īśvarakṛṣṇa gives the definition of mahat as the determinative.^[1] In the Bhagavatgītā also the word adhyavasāya is used to indicate budhi which is determinate.^[2] In the words of Dr. Anima Sengupta, mahat is the germ of this vast world of objects including intellect, ego and mind. Hence, it is also known as jagatvīja. (seed of the world)^[3]

It is called buddhi or the intellect because it is the source of all knowledge of human being. Sāṃkhyasūtra states that the first product of Prakṛti is called mahat which is also termed as mamas^[4] The same view is supported by Aniruddha also. According to Aniruddha, the first product of Prakṛti is the principle of mahat i.e., buddhi. It is called manas or the thinking principle, because it thinks.^[5]

In the Sāṃkhyasāra, Vijñānavikṣu explains mahat as the product of Pradhāna which is also called buddhi. He regards buddhi as the product containing all saṃskāras.^[6] In the ‘Introduction’ of Sāṃkhyatattvakaumudī, Ganganath Jha opines that according to Sāṃkhya, buddhi is will and intellect combined.

For in the opinion of western psychologists–specially belonging to the Kantian school,

“intellect contemplates the circumstances calling for action and provides the rule of conduct: will control the disposition in harmony with the dictator of intelligence.”^[7]

Sāṃkhyakārikā also points out that external organ together with the mind and ahaṃkāra being different modifications of the guṇas, illuminates the whole of the Puruṣas’s purpose presents it to the will. Buddhi is the helper of Puruṣa to attain apavarga.³¹

When the sattva guṇa preponderates in the mahat tattva then this is the state called as sāttvika. Development of sāttvika, results in the formation of a virtuous nature, while the increase of tāmasika properties in the buddhi results in the formation of a vicious nature, which brings a man down to the level of a lower animal. Virtue (dharma), knowledge (jñāna), detachment (vairāgya) andexcellence (aiśvaryya) are the four attributes or bhāvas of the sāttvika form of mahat or buddhi. On the other hand, vice (adharma), ignorance (ajñāna), attachment (avairāgya) and imperfection (anaiśvaryya) are the attributes of tāmasika form of mahat.³² Therefore, mahat or buddhi is characterized by ascertainment, virtue, knowledge, non-attachment and possession of power in its sāttvika form. Its tāmasika form is the opposite of that four.

Prof. S.N. Dasgupta remarks,

“Looked at from this point of view, it has the widest and the most universal existence compromising all creation and it thus called mahat. It is called liṅga (sign) as the other later existence or evolutes give us the ground of inferring the Prakṛti which is called aliṅga, i.e., of which of liṅga or characteristic may be affirmed”.^[8]

ii) Ahaṃkāra (ego)

Ahaṃkāra is the second principle of evolution that comes out from mahat. The term ahaṃkāra is composed of the personal pronoun aham and the root kṛ means to do, make or perform. Here it is used to mean the self identity or personal identity. Ahaṃkāra produces the notion of the ‘I’ and ‘mine’ i.e., the ego-sense. Hence, ahaṃkāra is ego-sense^[9] (abhimāna). Kartṛtva (agency) belongs to it and not to the self or Puruṣa.^[10] Ahaṃkāra is used as an evolute or emergent which proceeds from mahat. The term ahaṃkāra has various synonyms viz., abhimāna, ahaṃkṛti etc. There is no doubt that ahaṃkāra is a more determinate form of mahat, but nevertheless, it remains integrated in all its three forms within mahat, from which, it has been generated^[11].

In the Sāṃkhyapravcanabhāṣya, Vijñānabhikṣu also gives the definition of ahaṃkāra as creates the ‘I’ and whose function is abhimān or self assumption.^[12] Besides, Vijñānabhikṣu states that egoism arises from the great element just as a branch from the sprout as it performs the role of ideation; which is termed as ahaṃkāra, just like the designation of kumbhakāra^[13] From the psychological aspects, the function of ahaṃkāra is abhimāna. Kartṛtva (agency) belongs to it and not to the Puruṣa.^[14] According to Vijñānabhikṣu, ahaṃkāra is the internal substance whose vṛtti (function) is the abhimāna.^[15]

We can infer ahaṃkāra from its effects^[16] (internal and external sense organs and the five subtle elements). On the basis of prevalence of the three guṇas, ahaṃkāra is divided into three types. They are: vaikarika or sāttvika, taijasa or rājasa and bhūtadi or tāmasa. Eleven sense organs and the pañca tanmātras are produced from ahaṃkāra. From ahaṃkāra in its sāttvika aspect, come eleven organs while from ahaṃkāra on its tāmasika aspect comes the pañca tanmātras, rājasika ahaṃkāra is concerned in both the sāttvika and tāmasika ahaṃkāra and supplies the necessary energy to sattva and tamas.⁴²

Vācaspati Miśra also interprets the eleven sense organs as illuminative and is said to abound in the sattva guṇa that proceeds from the vaikṛta ahaṃkāra. From the ahaṃkāra as dominated by the tamo guṇa produces tāmasika ahaṃkāra that proceeds the set of the first elementary substance. It means though the ahaṃkāra is one and uniform yet on the basis of the domination or suppression of one or other of these guṇas it evolves the products of diverse kinds. When sattva guṇa and tamo guṇa are energised and moved by the rajo guṇa then they can perform their functions. Hence, the rajo guṇa is instrumental factor in their evolving of the sets of products, through exciting the activity of the other two guṇas. Therefore, it is not true that the rajo guṇa serves no useful purpose.^[17] Vijñānabhikṣu’s view in this respect is slightly different. He says that mind (manas) alone springs forth from sāttvika ahaṃakāra and other ten organs (indriyas) are resultant form of rājasika ahaṃkāra. The pañca tanmātra (five subtle elements) are derived from tāmasika ahaṃkāra.^[18]

We can summerise the series of evolutes from ahaṃkāra of Sāṃkhya philosophy with the words of Dr. Anima Sengupta:

“In fact, buddhi cannot really act without a distinction of the universe into subject and object and this distinction is to be made by ahaṃakāra. Hence, mahat changes into ahaṃkāra, which in the first moment of evolution appears as a mere general state of undifferentiated subjectivity and objectivity; and then a part of this undifferentiated mass under the predominating influence of sattva, develops into specific organs of individuals along with the definite sense of individuality (individual sense). The remaining portion comes under the influence of tamas and is called the bhūtadi and this part become the basis of the objective world.”^[19]

The guṇas take three different courses of development from ahaṃkāra and accordingly they are vaikārika or sāttvika, taijasa or rājasika and bhūtadi or tāmasika. As the transformation continues, the manas (mind), the pañca jñānendriya (the five organs of knowledge) and the pañcakarmendriya (the five organs of action) come forth from sāttvika ahaṃkāra, and the pañcatanmātra (subtle elements) viz., śabda (sound), sparśa (touch), rūpa (form), rasa (flavor) and gandha (odour) emerge from tāmasika ahaṃkāra. The rājasika aspect stands midway and plays its part in both. Thus from ahaṃkāra the twofold creation emerges.^[20]

In describing the production of tanmātras S.N. Dasgupta holds that śabda or ākāśa (the sound potential) is the first generated directly from the bhūtādi. Secondly the sparśa or the vāyu (touch potential) is generated by the union of a unit of tāmas from bhūtādi with the ākāśatanmātra. Thirdly, the rūpa or teja (colour-potential) is generated similarly by the accretion of a unit of tāmasa from bhūtādi. Next comes the rasa or ap (taste potential) which generated by the union of a unit of tāmasa from bhūtādi. This aptanmātra again by its union with a unit of tāmasa from bhūtādi produces the gandha tanmātra or pṛthivī (small potential).^[21]

Then from the tanmātras come out the five gross elements, viz.,

1. ākāśa (ether),
2. vāyu (air),
3. tejas (fire),
4. ap (water) and
5. pṛthivī (earth).

From the śabda tanmātra arises the element of ether together with the quality of sound. From sparśatanmātra combined with the śabdatanmātra arises the element of air together with qualities of sound and touch. From rūpatanmātra combined with those sound and touch, arises the element of fire together with the qualities of sound touch and colour. From rasatanmātra combined with those of sound, touch and colour, arises the element of water together with the qualities of sound, touch, colour and taste. And lastly, from gandhatanmātra combined with those of sound, touch, colour, and taste arises the element of earth together with the qualities of sound, touch, colour, taste and smell. In the Sāṃkhyakārikā it is mentioned that the pañca tanmātra(subtle elements) are technically called aviśeṣa, and the pañca mahābhuta(gross elements) are said to be viśeṣa (specific), because they are śānta (smoothing), ghora (terrific), and mūḍha (stupefying)^[22].

iii) Manas (mind)

The subtle and central sense organ manas or mind arises from sāttvika ahaṃkāra. It can come into contact with the several sense organs at the same time. According to Sāṃkhya philosophy, manas partakes the nature of both i.e., sensory and motor organs.^[23] Vācaspati Miśra explains that mind is an organ of sensation as well as one of action; since the eye and the other sensory organs, as well as speech and other motor organs are able to operate on their respective objects only when influenced by the mind^[24].

Mind is the observing principle.^[25] In this respect Vācaspati Miśra states that when a certain object has been just vaguely apprehended by a sense-organ as ‘a thing’, there follows the definite cognition in the form of ‘it is such and such a thing, not that’. The perception of definite properties as belonging to a thing is done apprehended through the mind.^[26] Manas is not all pervading since it is an instrument possessing movement and action.^[27] It assumes manifold forms in connection with different senses^[28]. Manas together with buddhi, ahaṃkāra makes up the internal organ. (antaḥkaraṇa)^[29]

Ganganath Jha remarks that,

“The function of this principle, mind, is technically called in Sāṃkhya ‘reflection’. When we first look upon an object the first impressions in connection therewith are infinite and without qualities ………… This indefinite and vague impression is soon rendered definite; and this definition and the different qualifications are imparted to it by the reflection of the mind. This process follows so quickly that one can scarcely mark the process and thinks that the first impression he has was all along definite, just as he latterly comes to perceive it”^[30]

iv) Indriyas (Organs)

The next ten principles are called indriyas which are divided into two groups viz.,

1. jñānendriya (cognative organs) and
2. karmendriya(motor-organs).

The five knowing senses or powers of cognition are called jñānendriya, and the five working senses are called karmendriya. These powers are evolved to construct the world as a system of purposes or objects of desires. The pañca jñānendriyas are eye, ear, nose, tongue and skin and the pañca karmendriyas are speech, hand, feet, organ of excretion and generation.⁵⁷ Vācaspati Miśra also in his commentary gives the definition of indriyas. He says the sense-organs and the motor-organs, both are called indriya because they are the signs of the spirit.^[31] The eye is the organ for perceiving colour, the ear for perceiving sound, the skin for feeling touch, the nose for feeling smell, and the tongue for perceiving taste.

Each of sense grasps one quality. The jñānendriyas have the power to hear (śrotra), the power to feel (tvak), the power to see (cakṣus), the power to taste (rasanā) and the power to smell (ghrāṇa). The karmendriyas have the power to express (vāk), the power to procreate (upastha), the power to excrete (pāyu), the power to grasp (pāṇi) and the power to move (pāda).^[32] These ten fold abstract senses powers (indriyas) could no real existence without object.

v) Tanmātras (subtle elements)

The tanmātras are five in number which are emerged from tāmasika

ahaṃkāra.^[33] Śabda (sound), sparśa (touch), rūpa (colour), rasa (taste) and gandha (smell) are the five tanmātras. These are the objects of the five sense organs.^[34] From the subtle elements of sound arises the element of ether (ākāśa) together with the quality of sound. From the touch (sparśa) combined with the essence of sound, arises the gross element of air (vāyu) together with the qualities of sound and touch. From the tanmātra of colour (rūpa) combined with those of sound and touch, arises the element of fire (teja) together with the qualities of sound, touch and colour. Again from the tanmātra of taste rasa combined with those of sound, touch and colour arises the element of water (ap) together with the qualities of sound, touch, colour and taste. And lastly from the tanmātra of smell (gandha) combined with those of sound, touch, colour and taste arises the element of earth (pṛthivi) together with the qualities of sound, touch, colour, taste and smell.^[35]

The Sāṃkhya gives a description of the material creation (bhoutika sarga) of the tanmātras. The Sāṃkhyakārikā mentions that the deva sarga(celestial creation is of eight kinds), the tiryakyoni (animal species) is of five varities; and the mānuṣaka (human) is of one kind^{[36] .} The eight celestial forms belong to i) Brahmā ii) Prajāpati iii) Indra iv) Pitṛ v) Gandharva v) Yakṣa vi) Rākṣasa vii) Piśāca. The five kinds of animal are i) cattle, ii) deer iii )bird iv) reptile v) immobile things. Of the mankind, there is only one kind only, without taking into accounts its four divisions, such as brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, etc., in as much as the physical frame is the same in all the classes of humans. Such is the material creation.^[37]

vi) Mahābhūtas (gross elements)

The pañca mahābhūtas are the last principle of the evolution. The mahābhūtas are called specific (viśeṣa), which are produced from the five tanmātras.^[38] Kṣiti, ap, tejas, marut and vyom are the pañca mahābhūtas. Anima Sengupta opines that the process of evolution starts from the subtle to the gross. After the emergence of the gross elements, the process of evolution stops in the sense that pañcabhautika changes are simply changes from gross to subtle.^[39] In the phenomenal world all vyaktas are said to be only the modifications of these principles and not the creation of anything new.

Prakṛti and its evolutes constitute the basic principles of the universe, both mental and physical. The evolutionary series beginning from Prakṛti to the final transformation as the gross elements has been shown with the help of a chart.^[40]

From the above chart it is revealed that rājasika ahaṃkāra has no product but rajas helps both in sāttvika and tāmasika ahaṃkāra in their respective production. It is clearly stated in the Sāṃkhyatattvakaumudī of Vācaspati Miśra taijasād rājasād udhayaṃ bhavati^[41]

The activity of Prakṛti through the interaction with Puruṣa resulting in the creation of the universe is spontaneous and free in the sense that it does not receive any kind of guidance from the spiritual principle.^[42] As Puruṣa is conscious and inactive and Prakṛti is unconscious but active so it seems tobe impossible to start the process of evolution only by the help of their proximity. But Sāṃkhya clarifies this doubt very clearly with the help of an example and says that just as a lame man and a blind man can co-operate in order to get out of a forest, so also the inactive Puruṣa and the non-intelligent Prakṛti co-operate to serve their respective interest.^[43] While the process of evolution is going on, Puruṣa only remains, as the witness of the process of transformation.^[44]

One more description of creation is depicted in the Sāṃkhya system which is called the pratyayasarga or bhāvasarga (the intellectual creation)^[45]. This is the process of creation of buddhi which has four divisions viz., viparyaya (ignorance), asakti (disability), tuṣṭi (contentment), and siddhi (success or perfection). However, from the mutual suppression of the guṇas due to their inequalities, the different forms of this become fifty.^[46]

Further, viparyaya is divided into five kinds viz., avidyā, asmitā, rāga, dveṣa and abhiniveṣa, and asakti (disability) is of twenty eight fold, tuṣṭi (contentment) if of nine fold and siddhi has eight divisions.⁷⁴ Generally pratyaya means knowledge.

Gauḍapāda also says the word pratyaya means nothing but buddhi (intellect)^[47] Vācaspati Miśra also supports the view of Gauḍapāda. He maintains that pratyaya is that by which anything is known i.e.,buddhi and pratyayasarga is the creation of that buddhi^[48].

Moreover, in Sāṃkhyakārikā we get the mention of three types of body viz., subtle body (sūkṣmaśarīra), body from parents (mātāpitṛjā) gross body (sthūlaśarīra). Among these three kinds of body , subtle body is eternal, body from parentsand gross body are perishable.⁷⁷

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

adhyavasāyo budhiḥ, Sāṃkhyakārikā , 23 (a)

[2]:

vyavasāyātmikā budhireka/ Śrimad-bhagavadgītā , 2.41(a)

[3]:

Sengupta, Dr. Anima, Classical Sāṃkhya: A Critical Study, p.120

[4]:

mahadākhyamādyaṃ kāryaṃ, tanmanaḥ/ Sāṃkhyasūtra , 1.71

[5]:

yat prakṛtiḥ ādyaṃ kāryaṃ tat mahat, mahattattvaṃ buddiḥ/
tadeva mananāt mana iti/ Sāṃkhyasūtravṛtti , 1.71

[6]:

Sāṃkhyapravacana-bhāṣya , II. 41-42

[7]:

Jha, Ganganath, Sāṃkhyatattvakaumudī, p.27;
³¹ ete pradīpakalpāḥparasparavilakṣaṇāḥ guṇaviśesāḥ/
kṛtsnam puruṣasyā’rthaṃ prakāśya buddhau prayacchanti// Sāṃkhyakārikā , 36;
³² adhyavasāyo buddhirdharmo jñānaṃ virāga aiśvarayam/
sāttvikametadrūpaṃ tāmasamasamādviparyastam// Ibid., 23

[8]:

Dasgupta, S.N., A History of Indian philosophy, Vol. 1 p. 249

[9]:

abhimāno’haṃkāraḥ, Sāṃkhyakārikā , 24

[10]:

ahaṃkāraḥ kartā na puruṣaḥ/ Sāṃkhyasūtra , 6. 54

[11]:

Sengupta, Dr. Anima, Classical Sāṃkhya: A Critical Study, p. 123

[12]:

yaḥ saḥ ahaṃ karotīti ahaṃkāraḥ abhimānavṛttika ityarthaḥ/ Sāṃkhyapravacana-bhāṣya on Sāṃkhyasūtra , 1.72

[13]:

mahattatvādahaṃkāra utpadyate, aṅkurāt śakhivat. tasya cā’bhimānavṛttiktvādahaṃkāra saṃjñā kumbhakārasaṃjñāvat tadeva lakṣaṇam/ Sāṃkhyasāra , 3 (Pūrvabhāgaḥ)

[14]:

Radhakrishnan, S., Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2, p. 268

[15]:

ahaṃkāraścābhimānvṛttikamantaḥkaraṇḍravyaṃ/ Sāṃkhyapravacana-bhāṣya on Sāṃkhyasūtra ,1.63

[16]:

ahaṃkārākhyadravyamnumānena bodha/ Ibid.;
⁴² sāttvika ekādaśakaḥ pravarttat vaikṛtadahaṃkārāt/
bhūtādestanmātraḥ sa tāmasastaijasādubhayam// Sāṃkhyakārikā , 25

[17]:

prakāśalāghavābhyāmekādaśaka indriyagaṇaḥ sāttviko vaikṛtātsāttvikādahaṃkārātpravarttate. bhūtādestvahaṃkārāttāmsāttānmātro gaṇaḥ pravarttate. kasmāt? yataḥ sa tāmasaḥ. yadyapi rajaso na kāryāntaramasti tathāpi sattvamasī svayamkriye samarthe api na svasvakāryaṃ kurūtaḥ/ Sāṃkhyatattva-kaumudī on Sāṃkhyakārikā , 25

[18]:

sāttvikakekādaśakaṃ pravartate vaikṛtādahaṃkārāt, Sāṃkhyasūtra , 2,18; ekādaśānāṃ pūraṇamekādaśakaṃ manaḥ ṣoḍaśātmagaṇamadhye sāttvikaṃ, atastat vaikṛtāt sāttvikāhaṃkārājjayate/ Sāṃkhyapravacana-bhāṣya on it.

[19]:

Sengupta, Dr. Anima, Classical Sāṃkhya, A Critical Study, p.125

[20]:

abhimānā’haṃkārastasmād…………….. tāmasastaijasādubhayaṃ/ Sāṃkhyakārikā , 24-25

[21]:

Dasgupta, S. N., A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1. p.252

[22]:

tanmātrāṇyaviśeṣāstebhyo bhūtāni pañca pañcabhyaḥ/
ete smṛtāḥ viśeṣāḥ śāntāḥ ghorāśca mūdhāśca// Sāṃkhyakārikā , 38

[23]:

ubhayātmakamatra manaḥ, Ibid., 27(a)

[24]:

mana ubhayātmakaṃ buddhīndriyaṃ karmenddriyaṃ ca cakṣurādināṃ vāgādināṃ ca mano’dhiṣṭhitānāmeva svasvaviṣayeṣu pravṛtteḥ/ Sāṃkhyatattva-kaumudī on Ibid.

[25]:

saṃkalpakamatra manaḥ/ Ibid.

[26]:

saṅkalpena rūpeṇa mano lakṣyate/
ālocitamindriyeṇa ‘vastvidam’ iti sammugdhaṃ ‘idamevaṃ, naivaṃ’ iti// Ibid.

[27]:

Sāṃkhyasūtra , V. 69

[28]:

guṇapariṇāmabhedāt nānātvam avasthāvat/ Ibid., II.27

[29]:

Sāṃkhyakārikā , 35

[30]:

Jha, Ganganath, Sāṃkhyatattvakaumudī, p.36;
⁵⁷ buddhīndriyāṇi cakṣuḥ śrotraghrāṇarasantvagākhyāni/
vākpāṇipādapāyūpasthāni karmendriyāṇyāhuḥ// Sāṃkhyakārikā , 26

[31]:

ubhayamapyetadindrasyātmanaścihnatvādindriyamucyate/ Sāṃkhyatattva-kaumudī on Ibid.

[32]:

vacanādānaviharaṇotsargānandāśca pañcānāṃ karmendriyāṇāṃ/
kaṇṭhatālvādisthāna-mindriyaṃ vāk tasya vṛttivyāpāraḥ vacanam, jñānendriyāāṃ vṛttayaḥ spaṣṭāḥ/ Sāṃkhyatattva-kaumudī on Sāṃkhyakārikā , 28

[33]:

bhūtādestanmātraḥ sa tāmasaḥ, Sāṃkhyakārikā , 25 (b)

[34]:

śabdasparśarūparasagandhā esāṃ pañcaiva viṣayā/ Gauḍapādabhāṣya on Sāṃkhyakārikā , 4

[35]:

tatra śabdatanmātrādāśaṃ sabdaguṇam, vāyuḥ śabdasparśaguṇa, teja śabdasparśarūpaguṇaṃ,……..āpaḥśabdasparśarūparasaguṇāḥ gadhatanmātrachabdasparśarūparasagandhaguṇā pṛthivī/ Gauḍapādabhāṣya on Sāṃkhyakārikā , 24

[36]:

aṣṭavikalpo daivastairyagyonaśca pañcadhā bhavati. mānuṣyaścaikavidhaḥ samāsato bhautikaḥ sargaḥ// Sāṃkhyakārikā , 53

[37]:

brāhmaḥ, prājāpatyaḥ…………sthāvarā eveti// Sāṃkhyatattva-kaumudī on Ibid.

[38]:

Sāṃkhyakārikā , 38

[39]:

Sengupta, Dr. Anima, Classical Sāṃkhya, A Critical Study, p.127

[40]:

Sharma, C.D., A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, p. 162

[41]:

Sāṃkhyatattva-kaumudī on Sāṃkhyakārikā , 25

[42]:

īśvarāsiddheḥ/ Sāṃkhyasūtra , I.92

[43]:

paṅgvandhavat ubhayorapi saṃyogastatkṛtaḥ sargaḥ/ Sāṃkhyakārikā , 21 (b)

[44]:

sākṣāt sambandhāt sākṣitvam/ Sāṃkhyasūtra , 1.161

[45]:

liṅgākhyo bhāvākhyastasmād dvividhaḥ pravartate sargaḥ/ Sāṃkhyakārikā , 52(b)

[46]:

eṣa pratyayasargo viparyayā’śaktituṣṭisiddhākhyaḥ/
guṇavaiṣamayavimardāttasya ca bhedāstu pañcāśat// Ibid., 46;
⁷⁴ pañca viparyayabhedāḥ bhavantyaśaktistu karaṇavaikalyāt/
aṣṭāviṃśatibhedā tuṣṭirnavadhā’ṣṭdhā siddhiḥ// Ibid.,47

[47]:

pratyayo buddhirityukta, Gauḍapādabhāṣya on Sāṃkhyakārikā , 46

[48]:

pratīyate’neneti pratyayo buddhiḥ, tasya sargaḥ, Sāṃkhyatattva-kaumudī on Sāṃkhyakārikā , 46;
⁷⁷ sūkṣmā mātāpiṭṛjāḥ saha prabhūtaistridhā viśesāḥ syuḥ/
sūkṣmāstesāṃ niyatāḥ mātāpitṛjā nivartante// Sāṃkhyakārikā , 39