4. Non-dualism in Vedic Tradition

The entire Vedic literature, which generally comes in two divisions, Karmakāṇḍa and Jñānakāṇḍa, contains several lines of non-dualistic thoughts. In the development of human thought, deification took place to overcome the natural phenomena. The polytheism slowly changed into monotheism because of the understanding of the natural forces, which are personified as Gods and Goddesses, and their close relationship with each other. Gradually, these notions lead to monism and non-dualistic thoughts. Vedic Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas and Upaniṣads clearly reflect this development of human thought.

1. Non-dualism in Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas

Even though the Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas comprise the Karmakāṇḍa portion of Vedic literature, these texts contain several Mantras emphasizing the non-dual aspect. The Nāsadīyasūkta and Puruṣasūkta are the paradigms for the Non-dualistic thought in Ṛgveda. These Sūktas comes under the first and the tenth Maṇḍalas. In Nāsadīyasūkta, it is described that all objects experiencing as dual are ultimately not dualistic and the manifestation of one and the same reality.^[1] The Puruṣasūkta is seen in Ṛgveda and Yajurveda.^[2] In this Sūkta the monotheistic thinking is made through the personification of all natural worlds as a gigantic man called ‘Puruṣa.’ His head is heaven, His eye is the sun, and His breath is the wind and so on. The concept that man is microcosm or small world, and that, on the other hand, the world is a huge man (macranthropos) is generally diffused.^[3] Here the Sūkta describes the Puruṣa as a non-dual entity.^[4] Ṛgveda says that the intelligent poets call the beautiful non-dual being in many names.^[5] The concepts of Ṛta and Aditi are seen in a non-dualistic background.^[6]

Describing the oneness of fire, sun and dawn, Ṛgveda proclaims that there is only one entity behind all:

eka evāgnirbahudhā samiddha ekaḥ sūryo viśvamanuprabhūtaḥ |
ekaivoṣa sarvamidaṃ vibhāti ekaṃ va idaṃ babhūva sarvam || ^[7]

Sāyana had commented many Mantras of Ṛgveda with an Advaitic tone.^[8] Rudra is mentioned as non-dual reality in the Rudrādhyāya of Śukla-yajurveda.^[9] The Taittirīyasaṃhitā of Kṛṣṇayajurveda also includes many mantras with non-dualistic thought.^[10] In the Saṃhitās of Sāmaveda and Atharvaveda also there are several mantras describing the non-dual being.^[11] The non-dual thoughts are also seen reflected in the Brāhmaṇas of all Vedas. The Taittirīyabrāhmaṇa of Kṛṣṇayajurveda, Sāmavidhāna-brāhmaṇa and Tāḍyabrāhmaṇa of Sāmaveda are some of them.

It is described that Prajāpati, who was the non-dual one, desired to become many:

prajāpatirvā idameka āsīt so'kāmayata bahusyāṃ prajāyeyeti sa enamatirātramapaśyat |^[12]

2. Non-dualism in Āraṇyakas and Upaniṣads

Āraṇyakas and Upaniṣads are belonging to the Jñānakāṇḍa portion of the Vedic literature. In some occasions these can be seen as the last portions of Brāhmaṇas. The Aitareyāraṇyaka and Kauṣītakī Āraṇyaka of Ṛgveda, Taittirīyāraṇyaka of Kṛṣṇayajurveda, Bṛhadāraṇyaka of Śukla-yajurveda have portions dealing with the non-duality of the reality.

Upaniṣads are considered as the peak mountains of spiritual world surrounded by the non-dual thoughts. They are called as Vedānta in two senses, one is in the sense of the end portion of the Vedic literature and the other is in the sense of the last (ultimate) level of knowledge, i.e. after knowing the supreme self, the ultimate reality, nothing remains to know. Upaniṣads contain the seeds of almost all philosophical thoughts emerged in India.

Kaṭhopaniṣad depicts that the indwelling self of all beings, though one, assumes a form in respect of every form, and is outside it:

agniryathaiko bhuvanaṃ praviṣṭo rūpaṃ rūpaṃ pratirūpo babhūva |
ekastathā sarvabhūtāntarātmā rupaṃ rūpaṃ pratirūpo bahiśca || ^[13]

Some of the Upaniṣadic passages, which denotes the non-dual thoughts, are listed below:

sadeva somyedamagra āsīdekamevādvitīyam |^[14]

(In the beginning, my dear one, this was one and the non-dual being),

brahma vā idamagra āsīttadātmānamevāvet ahaṃ brahmāsmīti |^[15]

(Verily in the beginning this was the Absolute Brahman alone, and it is known that I am that Brahman), ātmā vā idameka evāgra āsīt |^[16]

(In the beginning this was verily one, the self alone).

Depending these Upaniṣadic principles itself and by rejecting the duality of mundane world, Gauḍapāda and Śaṅkara founded and propounded the Advaita Vedānta philosophy.

3. Non-dualism in Vedānta Schools

Recapitulating the contents of Upaniṣads Bādarāyaṇa composed Brahmasūtras otherwise called as Vedāntasūtras. It is a treasure house of non-dualistic ideas. Commenting on the Brahmasūtras, Śrī Śaṅkara established the non-duality of Brahman. Other commentators of Brahma-sūtra like Rāmānuja and Vallabha, who paved the way for establishing other Vedānta schools, also has some leanings with the non-dualistic notions.

Sāṅkhya dualism became the seed of Vedānta with its theory of evolution of Prakṛti accompanied by the illuminator Puruṣa. Bādarāyaṇa and other pre-Śaṅkara commentators criticized this view and established the non-dualism. To an extent, the concept of Brahman of Vedāntins is the same to the concept of Puruṣa of Sāṅkhya without its diversity. Advaita Vedānta denies the multiplicity of Puruṣa and the evolution of non-sentient Prakṛti. The Īkṣatyadhikaraṇa of Brahmasūtra has clarified this idea.

3.1. Non-dualism in Advaita Vedānta of Śaṅkara

The non-duality of Brahman is evidently proved by Śaṅkara’s Grand teacher Gauaḍapāda. Gauḍapāda’s thought is explicitly seen in his Kārikās on Māṇḍūkyopaniṣad:

prapañco yadi vidyeta nivarteta na saṃśayaḥ |
māyāmātramidaṃ dvaitamadvaitaṃ paramārthataḥ ||
vikalpo vinivarteta kalpito yadi kenacit |
upadeśādayaṃ vādo jñāte dvaitaṃ na vidyate ||
bhāvairasadbhirevāyamadvayena ca kalpitaḥ |
bhāvā apyadvayenaiva tasmādadvayatā śivā || ^[17]

[If a phenomenal world were to exist, it should, no doubt, cease to be. This duality is but an illusion; in reality it is non-dual. The notion (such as the teacher, the taught and the scripture) will disappear, if one had imagined it. This notion (of the teacher etc.) is for the purpose of instruction. When (the Truth is) realized, duality does not exist. This (Self) is imagined to be unreal objects and also to be non-dual. The objects are also imagined on the non-dual (Self). Therefore the non-duality is auspicious.]^[18]

Following his grand master, Śaṅkara propounded the Advaita Vedānta by commenting on Māṇḍūkyakārikā, major Upaniṣads, Brahma-sūtra and Bhagavadgīta. The dialectical method was used by him to establish the real sense of non-duality. Śaṅkara’s Advaita Vedānta has a strong foundation in the Ātman doctrine of the Upaniṣads. It refuses the duality apart from the reality of Brahman, which shines forth in the conditioned bodies, i.e. Jīvas, and ultimately becomes the same reality.

Śaṅkara uses the term Vedānta for Upaniṣads in his introductory part of Brahmasūtrabhaṣya. He says that all Vedāntas were being started for the attainment of self knowledge; the meaning of all Vedāntas is one and the same.^[19] He opines that the reality of Brahman should be clear because the texts like Vedas are the cause and reference at the same time.^[20]

The fundamental point of view of Advaita Vedānta centers round the notion of appearance. By establishing the appearance of empirical world’s unreality, the real non-duality will enlighten, like the lightening of the lamp and vanishing the darkness. This can be achieved only through Adhyāropa-Apavāda method and continuous meditation on the ultimate reality. The theory of illusion has a prima face status in the philosophy of Advaita. The deluding and obscuring powers create the diversity of objects. Non-duality is the nature of ultimate reality.

3.2. Non-dualism in Bhakti Schools of Vedānta

Criticizing the views of Śaṅkara several minor schools of Vedānta emerged. They are generally known in the name Bhakti school as they give a pivotal role to Bhakti towards the Supreme Self in their doctrines. Mainly there are five branches in this school. They are 1) Viśiṣṭādvaita of Rāmā-nuja 2) Dvaita of Mādhva 3) Śuddhādvaita of Vallabha 4) Dvaitādvaita of Nimbārka and 5) Acintyabhedābheda of Caitanya. Among these some systems uphold a few elements of the non-duality as part of their philosophy. The Name of the systems itself indicate their Advaitic leaning. At the same time it is to be noted that they are not straight forward like the Advaita Vedānta of Śaṅkara. Even though they are not fully non-dualistic, considering the non-dualistic elements in their philosophy, it seems that these systems are to be mentioned here.

3.2.1. Viśiṣṭādvaita

The theistic school of Vedānta, called as Viśiṣṭādvaita (qualified non-dualism), propounded by Rāmānuja has a nature of non-dualism. It believes in some sort of qualified identity of the individual self with God and the qualified identity of world with God. Swami Tapasyananda remarks that here the unity is not the sublation of all diversity but the subordination of diversity to unity.^[21] The qualified non-dual reality is qualified Brahman or Saguṇa Brahman, which is the mixed form of three elements -Cit, Acit and Īśvara. Lord Nārāyaṇa is the only ultimate reality without a second. Cit is Jīva, Acit is the world, and the God or Īśvara is binding the two without any discordance that means he is the unifying principle for attaining the non-dualistic state. Rāmānuja uses several emphatic terms to describe the inseparable fullness of ultimate reality, Lord Nārāyaṇa. They are: Śarīraśarīribhāva (relation of body and soul), Prakāraprakāribhāva (relation of mode and substance), Viśiṣṭaviśeṣaṇabhava (relation of qualified and qualifications).^[22]

The ultimate aim of this system is liberation or the attainment of oneness of Jīva with the Saguṇa Brahman by means of devotion. Apart from the nihilism of Śaṅkara, Rāmānuja took effort to construct a theory of Unity of all existence in the face of diversity constituted of Jīvas and universe or nature. In order to establish his philosophy Rāmānuja composed a commentary on Brahmasūtra known as Śrībhāṣya.

3.2.2. Śuddhādvaita

Vallabhācārya’s Śuddhādvaita is also known as pure non-dualism developed in the background of the Bhāgavata tradition of Vaiṣṇavism. According to Vallabha Brahman is omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient reality that is absolutely free from all dualism. The wonderful multiplicity and divinity is like a play of God which is spontaneous activity and generated from curiosity. It is completely filled with attributes and at the same time it is beyond all attributes. All living beings are manifested from Brahman, who is in the form of Saccidānanda. Jīva is a part of it and Brahman is the whole cosmos.

For the attainment of Liberation which is the aim of life Vallabha accepted the path of devotion, which is absolutely unique and different from other devotional paths of Rāmānuja, Mādhva, etc. His path of devotion is universally known as Puṣṭipath. It has been regarded as transcendental and beyond Guṇas. So it is also known as Nirguṇa tradition of Bhakti.

According to him the Supreme personality and Parabrahman is Lord Kṛṣṇa, also called as Puruṣottama. All other gods are partial manifestations of Kṛṣṇa. The liberation is called Sāyūjya or unitive liberation which is also Nirguṇa. It is to be reached only through the absolute worship of Lord Kṛṣṇa. Vallabha accepted smaller paths in the daily ritualistic actions like Pūjā, Upāsanā etc. than devotion. He says that love is the basis of the unity of all the means in the nine fold devotion. Liberation is attainable through the unstinted love and devotion to Lord Kṛṣṇa based on any one of the five aspects of knowledge: renunciation, discrimination, yoga, love and penance.^[23] Vallabha has elucidated his philosophy in his commentary on Brahmasūtra of Bādarāyaṇa known as Aṇubhāṣya.

The whole world is the pure evolute of the Brahman. God takes the outward appearance of the world through His creative power of Māyā. It comes into existence because of the nescience (Avidyā). Knowledge and ignorance are the powers of God, originating from Māyā. These two are concerned with only an individual self.^[24]

Like other non-dualistic philosophers, Vallabha also gives importance to knowledge. He says that God-realization is not possible through mere action or knowledge. God is known only through devotion. There is no doubt that knowledge (Jñāna) is superior to action (Karma). But with the hold of devotion, this very knowledge becomes excellent.

3.2.3. Dvaitādvaita

Niṃbārka, a great saint and philosopher, founded the philosophy of Dvaitādvaita, difference cum non-difference. The main concept of the system is clear from the analysis of its name itself.

dvābhyāṃ caiva prakārābhyāmitaṃ taddvītamucyate |
dvītaṃ tadeva dvaitaṃ syādadvaitaṃ tu tato'nyathā || ^[25]

“A thing which is in two ways, is dvita (dvai+ iṇ gatau+ta), and dvīta is merely dvaita on account of svārthika pratyaya (abstract affix) -(dvidhā itaṃ tasya bhāvaḥ svārthe an), then advaita, which is derived by nañ samāsa (negative compound)-na dvaitaṃ iti advaitaṃ; or, is different from dvaita, will be a thing which known in only one way.”^[26]

Thus, Dvaitādvaita may be interpreted by Karmadhārayasamāsa (appositional compound), which is dvaitaṃ ca tadadvaitaṃ ca, or a thing, which can be known in two ways as well as in one way, is called Dvaitādvaita.

According to Niṃbārka there are three entities Jīva, Jagat and Brahman. Brahman is the only ultimate existence, but He manifests Himself as the manifold world of becoming consisting of the Jīvas and Jagat. Brahman is non-different from the world and souls because these depend on him for their being or their very existence. Like the clay and pots Brahman, Jīva and Jagat have mutual relation as cause and effect or part and whole. When the perceiver sees the pot as same as clay then only the non-difference starts. At the same time the there is identity in the cause and effect. Besides the commentaries and on Brahmasūtra and Bhagavadgīta, Niṃbārka has written a short simple work known in the name Daśaślokī (Vedāntakāmadhenu) to expose his doctrines. In this work Niṃbārka elucidates his concept of Brahman naming Him as Kṛṣṇa and Hari.^[27] To establish the ultimate identity of Brahman, Niṃbārka takes Śruti, Smṛti and Sūtra with his own commentaries. He has clarified this thought in his Vedāntakāmadhenu.^[28] His philosophy is also known as Svābhāvikabhedā-bheda or natural difference cum non-difference.

3.2.4. Acintyabhedābheda

Śrīkṛṣṇacaitanya’s idealistic school of Vedānta, known as Acintya-bhedābheda, also has a non-dualistic element. Being a school of Bhakti, it takes devotion as the only means of emancipation. This school of Bengal Vaiṣṇavism grew in support of the commentary on Brahmasūtra written by Baladevavidyābhūṣaṇa, who was a strong disciple of Caitanya and one of the propounder of Acintyabhedābheda. Due to the unavailability of the primary texts or commentaries of Caitanya, the philosophy accepts Baladeva’s commentary as main reference.

According to Caitanya, Kṛṣṇa or Hari is the ultimate reality. With the qualities like omnipotence and omniscience, He is called Saguṇa Brahman, and He is Nirguṇa in the sense of free from the qualities of Prakṛti. In Him, there is unity of perfect beauty, perfect majesty, perfect strength, perfect glory, perfect intelligible knowledge and perfect detachment (Vairāgya).^[29] He has three powers Parā, Aparā and Avidyā. Parāśakti is Viṣṇuśakti or Svarūpaśakti and Avidyāśakti is Māyāśakti. Like power and powerful this system accepted the relation of cause and effect as difference and non-difference.

In Acintyabhedābheda (inconceivable identity in difference) the Jīva is eternal. He is the marginal potency of Kṛṣṇa, the ultimate. As an enjoyer, knower, agent etc. he works for liberation. At the same time Jīvas are neither one nor different from Kṛṣṇa. With His Māyāśakti, He constructs the world as real. Like Jīva world also comes out of God through His power of being. It is also neither one with God nor different from God.^[30] Śakti is both identical and different from Śaktimat. Due to this element of difference, the transformation of Śakti does not affect the Śaktimat. At the same time the element of identity makes the Supreme reality Non-dual even in the middle of difference.^[31] In this school, liberation is eternal enjoyment of Kṛṣṇa’s blissful love and the Bhakti, which is the way to it, is not reserved for any caste or creed. Thus the system could set for maintaining the oneness in the social stratum also.

Footnotes and references:

[back to top]

[1]:

Ṛgveda, 10.129.1.

[2]:

Ibid., 10.90., Yajurveda, 3.1.

[3]:

Bloomfield, Maurice, The Religion of the Veda, The Ancient Religion of India, Indological Book House, Delhi, 1972, p. 242.

[4]:

puruṣa evedaṃ sarva yadbhūtaṃ yacca bhavyaṃ | Yajurveda, 3.1.2.

[5]:

suparṇaṃ viprāḥ kavayo vacobhirekaṃ santaṃ bahudhā kalpayanti | Ṛgveda, 10.114.5.

[6]:

Ṛgveda, 1.24.8 & 1.89.10.

[7]:

Ṛgveda, 8.58.2.

[8]:

Swami Tattvamayananda, ‘ Advaitaṃ Vedopaniṣattukaḷil’, Vedaṅṅaḷum Antar-vaijñānikapaṭhanaṅṅaḷuṃ, Ed. by Neelakandhan, Dr.C.M., Kadavaallur Anyo-nyaparishath, 2007, p. 25.

[9]:

Ibid., p.26.

[10]:

Ibid.

[11]:

Ibid., p. 27.

[12]:

Tāḍyabrāhmaṇa of Sāmaveda, Nag Publishers, Delhi, 1995, 4.1.

[13]:

Kaṭhopaniṣad, 2.2.9.

[14]:

Chāndogyopaniṣad, 6.2.1.

[15]:

Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad, 1.4.10.

[16]:

Aitareyopaniṣad, 1.1.1.

[17]:

Māṇḍūkyakārikā of Goudapāda, 1.17-18., 2.33.

[18]:

Translated by Panoli, V., Prasthānatraya, Vol. II, Mathrubhumi Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd., Calicut, 2006, pp. 343-344 & 387.

[19]:

sarve vedāntāḥ ārabhyante, sarveṣāṃ vedāntānāṃ yathā cāyamarthaḥ, Adhyāsabhāṣya of Brahmasūtra.

[20]:

ṛgvedādiśāstraṃ yoniḥ kāraṇaṃ pramāṇaṃ asya brahmaṇaḥ yathāvatsvarūpādhigame, Brahmasūtra-śāṅkara-bhāṣya, 1.1.3. 29

[21]:

Tapasyananda Swami, Bhakti Schools of Vedānta, Sri RamaKrishna Math, Mylapore, Madras, 1990, p. 32.

[22]:

Ibid., p. 38.

[23]:

For more details vide Bhatt, Kaladhar, R., The Vedānta of Pure Non-Dualism, The Dorning Company/Publishers, Virginia, 1979, p. 50.

[24]:

Ibid., p. 39.

[25]:

Dvaitādvaitaviveka of Bhagirath Jha, Vrindavan, 1945, p. 1.

[26]:

Agarwal Madan Mohan, The Philosophy of Nimbārka, Choukhamba Surabharati Prakasan, Varanasi, 1983, p. 1.

[27]:

svabhāvatopāstasamastadoṣamaśeṣakalyāṇaguṇaikarāśim | vyūhāṅginaṃ brahma paraṃ vareṇyaṃ dhyāyāmi kṛṣṇaṃ kamalekṣaṇaṃ harim || Verse 4. Quoted by Pandey, Sangamlal, Samskṛt Vāṅmay kā Bṛhat Itihās, Daśam Khaṇḍ, Uttarpradesh Samskṛt Saṃsthān, Lucknow, 1996, p. 336.

[28]:

sarvaṃ hi vijñānamato yathārthakam śrutismṛtibhyo nikhilasya vastunaḥ || brahmātmakatvāditi vedavinmatam trirūpatāpi śrutisūtrasādhitā || Verse 7. Quoted by Pandey, Sangamlal, op.cit., 336.

[29]:

Sinha Priti, The Philosophy of Advaita, Saraswati Mudranalaya, Varanasi, 1986, p. 22.

[30]:

Agarwal Madan Mohan, op.cit., pp. 76-78.

[31]:

Tapasyananda Swami, op.cit., p. 315.