1. Ancient Indian Medicine: Ayurveda's Foundations and Evolution

Chapter 4 ANCIENT TREATISES ON INDIAN MEDICINE (as referred to in Manasollasa) An effort has been made in this chapter to understand the concepts of ancient Indian medicine system (Ayurveda). Somesvara has, in the Manasollasa, stated " grud aalalang " 1.19.143. In the light of this statement, it becomes clear that Somesvara had acquired full knowledge of ancient Indian medicine system. King Somesvara has presented the concepts on how to lead a peaceful life, mentioned in the Sanskrit texts, which were written centuries ago. Many of these concepts are valid even today. Every person desires to achieve knowledge, brilliance of mind, wealth, strength and robust health. For this purpose King Somesvara prays as follows: sauryam dhairyam ksamaudaryam sucitvam priyavadita | udyogitvamanirvedah sarvada dharmakarita || jananuragah saubhagyam sastrasastrastra naipunyam | viveko drdhacittatvam kalakusalata dhanam || 2.1.4-5 Here, the performance of proper duty is suggested. It is known that a person blessed with a healthy mind in healthy body is able to lead a successful life. Our age-old prayer to God has been that we should not be tempted to indulge in deceitful activities and God should lead us to render useful service to the community. Caraka also expresses precisely the same thoughts as follows : buddhih siddhih smrtirmedha dhrti kirtih ksama daya || ( carakasamhita- - 1.39). Rgveda declares (8-12-19) that "Gods are propitiated and their vigour enhanced by prayer and praise". Medical treatises of Caraka and Susruta, which represent the earliest extant books on Ayurveda, clearly indicate that this form of medicine has never completely disappeared, but was probably superseded over time by a

69 system of medicine based on empirical-rational principles and practices, issuing from an active encounter with the world. It should not be assumed that empiricism or the process of observing and defining is evident only in the classical medical tradition. Vedic medicine relied on close observation of phenomena in order to develop its unique form of mythical and religious classifications and associations. The difference between these two epistemologies lies in their respective premises. The foundation of Vedic medicine was a belief in a multitude of benevolent and malevolent deities or spirits that populated the cosmos and caused good and bad effects in the human realm. Controlling and taming these entities were the ultimate goals of this healing system. In Ayurveda, a basic understanding of the interrelationship between human-beings and their environment prefaced every observation. Ideally human-beings and nature should be in perfect harmony. Disease occurred when the equilibrium between these two was disrupted. Restoration of a fundamental balance was the goal of this medical system. The social event occurring in Vedic antiquity was probably a key factor in initiating change. A forthright denigration of medicine by the priestly order and the Brahmanic hierarchy resulted in the exclusion of healers from the orthodox ritual cults because of the defilement they incurred from contact with impure people with whom they found fellowship. This type of "excommunication" transformed the medical priests into members of a fringe-group. Other important marginalized people included the heterodox wandering ascetics who renounced the trappings of orthodox ideologies and practices and abandoned society for the wilderness in search of higher spiritual goals. Unencumbered by the strictures of Brahmanical orthodoxy, these ascetics, who included among others the Buddhists, acquired a radically different view of the world and mankind's place in it, fostered by their intense meditative discipline. In fact, early Buddhist literature reveals that their understanding of the relationship between human-beings and nature was not very different

70 from that which contributed to Ayurvedic medical thought. An intellectual sympathy seemingly was shared by both the wandering ascetics on a spiritual quest and the roving physicians whose professional curiosity led them to encounters with different sorts of people from whom they could obtain useful medical knowledge. Finding rapport with the communities of heterodox ascetics and renunciants who were not inclined to censure their philosophies, practices and associations, the healers, like the knowledge-seeking ascetics, wandered the countryside performing cures and acquiring ever new remedies, treatments and medical information. They eventually became practically undistinguishable from the mendicants with whom they were in close contact. A vast storehouse of medical knowledge soon developed among these wandering physicians who, like the ascetics, were unhindered by Brahmanic strictures and taboos. With the help of ideas from the intellectual ascetics, the physicians began to conceive a radically new epistemology with which to codify and systematize this body of efficacious medical data. Fitting into the Buddha's key teaching of the middle way between world indulgence and self-denial, medicine became part of Buddhism by providing the means to maintain a healthy bodily state characterized by an equilibrium both within the body and between the body and its surroundings. Portions of the repository of medical lore were codified in the early monastic rules, thereby giving rise to a Buddhist monastic medical tradition. The early Buddhist community of monks or sangha was where wandering intellectuals would gather and exchange information which often included medical knowledge. As the sangha established more permanent dwellings and fixed abodes for ascetics, the intellectual life turned more scholarly, and a formal systematization of information and instruction ensued. The symbiotic relationship between Buddhism and medicine in the large conglomerate monasteries (viharas)

71 expedited the acceptance of Buddhism in other parts of Asia. Probably during the early centuries of the common era, Brahmanism assimilated the storehouse of medical knowledge into its socio-religious traditions. The most fascinating study in Ayurveda is its history from the earliest times in India. The earliest teacher of Ayurveda is Bharadwaja and his period is mentioned as Pre-Vedic or Vedic. He is mentioned as having performed severe penance over a long period at the end of which Bharadwaja went to Indra. At the time of creation, Brahma (creator) is reported to have handed down Ayurveda to Prajapati who in turn taught it to Asvinikumars. Indra is supposed to have received the same from Asvinikumars. After Krtayuga, the sages purified by penance are said to have assembled in the Himalayas. There is a long list of Rsis assembled there to discuss about the welfare of human beings. The most prominent among them were Angiras, Jamadagni, Vasista, Kasyapa, Bhrgu, Atreya, Bharadwaja, Vamadeva and Markandeya. Prakrti-equilibrium was considered the basis of Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa. Vikrti, disequilibrium, was regarded as disorder or disease. Eradication of diseases formed the pivotal point of discussion. They all meditated on Lord Indra who enlightened them about the remedies for the diseases. The sages decided to send Bharadwaja as their representative to Indra to know more about the cure for diseases. Indra is reported to have revealed in brief the essence of Ayurveda to him. Bharadwaja learnt from him the three sutras hetu - Reason for diseases, limga - Characteristics of diseases and treatment of diseases.¹ 1. . M.N. Joshi, Principles of Ayurveda, chapter gua aichi huar, Roopa Publications, Dharwad, 1999, pp. 22-23.

72 The knowledge received from Indra enabled Bharadwaja to enjoy longevity in life. He communicated to the rest of the sages this science of life 3. They came to know the significance of action and reaction. of medicines in general as well as special treatment of diseases. The sages enlightened Punarvasu about this extraordinary science of life. He in course of time taught his students, prominent among whom were Agnivesa, Bhela, Jathukarma, Parasara, Haritha and Ksarapani. The Tantra-Samhita was the earliest work brought out by Agnivesa. Bhela followed him by bringing out his Bhela-Tantra. Bhela conveyed the same to Punarvasu. The sages were all happy over the achievement of Agnivesa and Bhela. They congratulated them in general and Agnivesa in particular. Caraka incorporated the salient features of Agnivesa's TantraSamhita in his Caraka Samhito which is regarded even today as the perennial source of Ayurvedic medicine. This is supposed to have eight divisions entitled Sloka, Nidana, Vimana, Sarira, Indriya, Chikitsa, Kalpa and Siddhi. Only seventeen chapters of Cikitsa Sthana are available. Caraka could not complete the entire work. Dradhabala, son of Kapilabhali, is credited to have completed this famous work. Atreya, a disciple of Bharadwaja, is reported to be another reputed teacher of Ayurveda in 8 th century B.C. Patanjali, the author of Mahabhasya, is credited with having propounded Yoga in the 2 nd century B.C. which can effectively remove the dirt of the mind. It may not be out of context if the anecdote about Caraka is recollected here. It seems Adisesa came to the earth and saw people were suffering from all types of diseases and were becoming victims of diseases for want of proper treatment. He took pity on such unfortunate human

73 beings. He therefore decided to be born as the son of a sage. He studied the Vedas and Vedangas. No one knew about his presence on the earth where he came as a spy and freely moved about. He became famous as Carakacharya on the earth and as Vedacharya in the heavens.2 Adisesa is also credited with having given a separate status to Ayurveda although it formed a part of Atharva Veda.³ Susruta, the earliest surgeon in Ayurveda system, is the renowned author of Susruta Samhita in the 1 st century B.C. An interesting episode about the origin of Susruta Samhita may not be out of place here. It seems king Devodasa (Dhanvantari in previous birth) was staying at Kasi in the Vanaprastha stage. Sages approached him and prayed, as follows: ! 'Oh my lord! This body is afflicted with Vata, Pitta and Kapha, the three evils. Rajas and tamas also cause mental suffering. Ayurveda is an effective cure for both physical and mental disorder.' 'We pray that you throw light on this aspect for the benefit of mankind, both here and hereafter.' God Dhanvantari addressed them in this manner: 'Let all of you study Ayurveda. It is called Astanga. Please let me know which Anga should be explained to you.' The sages replied - 'We want to learn Ayurveda with emphasis on Salya'. The king Devodasa then explained the first division of Salya Tantra with reference to the four Pramanas - Pratyaksa, Agama, Anumana and Upamana.4 2. M.N. Joshi, op.cit., p.27 3. Ibid., p.27 4. Ibid., pp. 32-33.

74 Ayurveda is having eight divisions such as Kaya, Bala, Graha, Urdhwanga, Salya, Damshtra, Tara and Vrusha. It is very difficult to study each Tantra or Division separately. In order to make it easy for purposes of study, these Tantras have been incorporated in eight folds or 'Astanga Sangraha'.5 Astanga Hrdaya is another masterly work of the age and Vagbhata is the author who lived in 6 th Century A.D. He is also mentioned as the compiler of Astanga Sangraha. It has been repeatedly mentioned in Ayurveda that the treatment referred to by this 'science of life' is for the benefit of mankind both here and hereafter. Therefore, it is natural to mention Brahman or creator as the first person who knew Astanga Hrdaya. The creator is reported to have taught the same to Prajapati. It was then made known to Asvinikumars and Indra from whom the sage Atri learnt it. Atri handed it over to Agnivesa.6 Astanga Hrdaya Tantras are not in a narrative style. They are in the form of discussion between the sages and the disciples. Agnivesa, the disciple, raises some doubts out of curiosity and the sage Atreya removes his doubts by relevant replies. During the discussion it is made known that reasons for diseases are four-fold, i.e., wind, water, place and time vayu, jala, desa and kala . Cycle of time or seasonal variation and the rural or urban set up may render both medicine and food lose their taste and effect. Diseases spread on this count. In order to eradicate diseases, food and medicinal plants have to be preserved after thorough scrutiny and proper test. We must look at Indian medicine rather in terms of distinct phases. Although not well-defined, the first may be called pre-historic or pre-Vedic 5. Ibid., p. 34. 6. Ibid., p. 37

75 medicine, dating from about 2700 B.C. to 1500 B.C. The second is that of Vedic medicine which looks back to a time around the second millennium B.C. It is the earliest period in which a clearly discernible medical lore can be ascertained. Vedic medicine is the focus of the present thesis. The next distinguishable stage is characterized by the presence of separate Sanskrit treatises on Indian medical science or Ayurveda, 'the science of longevity.' The earliest of these medical books are the samhitas of Bhela, Caraka and Susruta, which date from about the beginning of the Christian era. The subject matter of these works is quite unlike that of Vedic medicine. Most diseases are defined in terms of a humoral theory. According to Indian physicians there are three 'humors' (dosas) : wind (vayu), bile (pitta) and phlegm (kapha, slesma), which, on analogy with the humors of the Hippocratic and Galenic systems, were the vitiating forces in the body. (Hippocrates and Galen were great physicians). In a normal state, the humors are in a state of equilibrium in the body. When something called a nidana, 'primary cause,' which could be of climatic, organic, or less commonly, demonic origin, acted upon the humors, an imbalance occurred, bringing about the manifestation of disease. The principal aim of the physician was to recognize which humor or humors were out of balance and to re-establish the equilibrium through treatments, which usually included drugs with opposite qualities, diet, and daily regimen, although surgery was also sometimes recommended. This thumbnail sketch of early Ayurvedic medicine serves to illustrate that at its basis lies a theoretical and a rational understanding of disease and cure. The origin of this new approach to medicine is a point of controversy. It is quite certain that a little of it can be traced to Vedic medicine. Although the theoretical framework of Ayurveda may not be Vedic, the basis of its materia medica could indeed have evolved from Vedic medicine or even from pre-historic, pre-Vedic medicine.

76 A clear and detailed picture of medicine prior to the Vedic phase is difficult to ascertain. Evidence of this pre-historic period in South Asia derives primarily from archaeological remains excavated from the sites of the Harappan culture, ometimes referred to as the Indus Valley Civilization. Its dates are from about 2700 B.C. to 1500 B.C., making it roughly contemporaneous with the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms of Egypt and the period of Sumer and Akkad in Mesopotamia. The mosaic of Harappan settlements illustrates a highly developed, urbanized culture, established principally along the Indus River (in Sind, now in Pakistan), stretching from the Arabian Sea to as far north as the Panjab (sites have also been found further south in the present-day-Gujarat). The area covered was nearly twice as large as the Egyptian civilization and almost four times as great as that of Sumer and Akkad." This vast civilization had two main centers or capitals one in the south, MohenjoDaro (near modern Sukkur) and one in the north, Harappa (near Lahore). The architecture of the Harappan sites was unique for its time. Streets were planned on a north-south and east-west grid. Houses were usually two-storeyed and made of burnt brick. Many homes contained a bathroom, built near the wall facing the street so that water could be drained through a pipe into a covered sewer running under the street. The bathrooms were either square or rectangular, with a sloping floor with an opening in the corner through which the water could drain. Several of the houses even had latrines with a drainage system similar to that of the bathrooms.8 These architectural designs point to a conscious concern for public health and sanitation and suggest an implicit belief in ritual purity and pollution, which becomes so prevalent 7. Henry E. Sigerist, A History of Medicine Vol. II, (Oxford University Press, New York, 1961), p.137. 8. Ibid., p.143.

77 in later Indian thought. The Great Bath found in the citadel area of Mohenjo-Daro perhaps epitomizes the Harappan penchant for purification through bathing. The man-made pool measured 108 by 180 feet with a centre basin 23 feet by 39 feet and a sloping floor which reached a depth of 8 feet. This giant structure was filled with water from a large well.9 The central purifying agent was water which, as we shall see, was an important medicine of the Vedic people. It is quite possible, therefore, that hydrotherapy was a therapeutic measure used by the Harappans to restore and to preserve health, which brings to mind the purpose of the Roman baths of a later period. Unlike the ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian medical traditions which have specific treatises outlining their medical systems, the earliest Indian textual evidence of medicine is randomly incorporated in the corpora of its principal religious literature, primarily in the Atharvaveda and to a much lesser extent in the Rgveda. The medical material contained in these two ancient texts is not wholly free from problems. Because we have well edited texts with which to work, we stand on fairly firm ground when labouring with these bodies of literature, which have been preserved by an extraordinarily accurate oral tradition from very early times until comparatively recently when they were recorded in written form. Doubts concerning the meaning of specific words and phrases are present; but these uncertainties are not unexpected in such ancient documents. Of all the religious literature of ancient India, these Vedic texts have received the most extensive philological investigation. With this background of scholarship at our disposal, we have a solid basis upon which to test new hypotheses and to construct new theories. Although we may not be able to eliminate all 9. Ibid. p.144.

78 the doubts which the literature still contains, we can, nevertheless, contribute significantly to the elucidation of India's antique medical lore. The actual medical doctrines we shall study are found mostly in the Atharvaveda, a religious text which contains much material of secular nature. The Rgveda is almost entirely relgious in character. As such it provides for the most part mythological stories illustrating the healings performed by various gods of the Vedic pantheon. 10 These episodes along with other scattered medical references will be utilized in order to explain more fully the medical philosophy and practice of the Vedic people; but they cannot in themselves be viewed as representing a separate medical tradition. It is only when the two texts are examined together that the fundamental doctrines of the Vedic medical tradition can be fully appreciated. A work of this type should include a discussion of anatomy. We refrain, however, from an examination of individual anatomical terms, as this has already been undertaken by A.F.R. Hoernle, F.S. Hammett and especially J. Filliozat, to whose works the reader should refer for the best discussion of the subject." For all their painstaking work on anatomy, Filliozat and the others have neglected to explain adequately the basis of ancient Indian anatomical knowledge. 10. 11. We see in particular the healing feats of the twin horsemen, Asvins at Rg-Veda 1.112.8, 15; 116.10, 15, 16; 117.9, 13, 17-18, 24; 118.6-8; 5.74.5; 75.5; 7.68.6; 71.5; 10.39.3, 4, 8; and 10.40.5; the connection of Rudra with healing at RgVeda 1.43.4; 114.5; 2.33.2, 4, 7, 12; 5.42.11; 7.35.6; 46.3; and 8.29.5; of the Maruts at RgVeda 2.33.13; and 8.20.23-26; of Soma and Rudra at RgVeda 6.74.3; of Indra at RgVeda 2.21.6; 4.19.9; 8.1.12 and especially 8.91(80), where Indra cures Apala of the loss of hair and of ugly skin. A.F. Rudolf Hoernle, Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India, Part I: Osteology or the Bones of the Body (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907); Frederick S. Hammett, "The Anatomical Knowledge of the Ancient Hindus," Annals of Medical History (New Series) 1 (1929) 325-33; and Jean Filliozat, La doctrine, 117-37.

79 Anatomical knowledge in ancient India was derived principally from the sacrifice of the horse and of man; chance observations of improperly buried bodies and examinations of the corporal members made by medical men during treatment contributed comparatively little to the body of anatomical knowledge. As a result of the precise ritual procedures of the sacrifice, which called for the recitation of the name of each part of the body as it was cut (for the horse this is documented at Rgveda : catustrimsada vajino devabandhorvankirasvasya svadhitih sameti | acchidra gatra vayuna krnota quagana na || 1.162.18) for man no early references are found, but later tradition specifies that the action should follow that of the immolation of the horse), fairly accurate lists of anatomical parts of the horse and of man have been preserved and transmitted, primarily through the exegetical Brahmana-texts. Filliozat's efforts at defining many of these parts have greatly advanced our understanding of the individual terms. Difficulties, however, still remain in the proper identification of many of the internal parts, which tend to be described by the native authorities in terms of a locality or as attached to a known organ. These enumerations provided the principal sources of anatomical knowledge until the time of the classical treatises (samhitas) of Ayurvedic medicine, when the visual inspection of the body by a type of dissection was introduced, perhaps from the West, into the traditional system of medical education. Vedic medicine may be characterized essentially as a magicoreligious system. Such a hackneyed definition implies more than it expresses. Space does not permit a complete discussion of magicoreligious medicine and it is apparently opposite to empirical medicine. Causes of diseases are not attributed to physiological functions, but rather to external beings or forces of a demonic nature who enter the body of their victim and produce sickness. The removal of such malevolent entities usually involved an elaborate ritual, often drawing on aspects of the dominant local religion and nearly always necessitating

80 spiritually potent and efficacious words, actions and devices. To some extent, the empirical medicine was also evident during Vedic time. It involved both observation and experience in order to determine the cause of disease and to effect an appropriate treatment. The Vedic Indian's attitude toward disease, therefore, was dominated by the belief that evil spirits, demons and other malevolent forces invaded the body and caused their victims to exhibit a state of disease. These demons were often personified and deified, giving rise to an entire pantheon of gods of disease. The impetus for the attack may have come from a breach of a certain taboo, from a sin committed against the gods or from witchcraft and sorcery. Injuries such as broken bones or wounds, however, were considered to be accidentally caused or the result of warfare. Other external diseases and afflictions were noticed to have been caused by noxious insects and vermin, often thought to be demonic in character. The idea of health in a positive sense is wanting in Vedic medicine. Any notion of the concept is to be found in the negative or opposite of what was understood to be disease, or more specifically in the absence of particular disease-causing demons, of injuries and damages and of toxins. As among most cultures of the world, an individual was considered to be healthy if his life-time was long, i.e., if he could repeatedly witness the rising sun, and if he showed complete recovery from illness. There are also indications that a wholesome body was associated with the intake of nutritious food. The healing ritual always required the recitation of religious incantations or charms. An analysis of these verses illustrates certain apotropaic devices which included the use of sympathetic magic, of the rhetorical question, of onomatopoeic sounds, of the identifying name, of the esoteric word or phrase which, when properly uttered, focused the

81 demon's attention on the healer, leading to its loss of grip and power. Disease-demons were often transferred from the patient to enemies or less desirable people, dispelled into the ground or carried away by birds to places where they could no longer be a menace to the community. Amulets or talismans (mani, literally 'jewel'), usually of vegetal origin, were ritually bound to drive out demons and to act as prophylactic measures in preventing further attacks. Fragrant plant substances were burnt to help expel the patient's demon, to protect him, and to make his environment pure and generally favourable for healing. Early morning (dawn), noon, and dusk (twilight) seem to have been the most auspicious times of the day to carry out healing rituals. Some rites were performed when certain stars were in a particular part of the heavens, suggesting that astrology may have played an important role in Vedic medicine. In addition to the evidence of a systematic, classificatory way of thinking, the Vedic healers showed that they were familiar with some empirical procedures of healing. These therapeutic actions, however, are found in the context of the magico-religious rite, implying that their efficacy was inextricably connected with the magical or spiritual operation. The treatments worked because the proper words were recited, the correct actions performed and the right devices used. Quite naturally these procedures are encountered most frequently in the treatment of external diseases and afflictions. For example, a form of surgery, utilizing a reed as a catheter, was performed to cure urineretention; lancing and salt were used in the treatment of certain pustules; cauterization with caustic medicines and perhaps with fire was practised; sand and perhaps also reeds were applied to stop the flow of blood issuing from a wound and perhaps from the uterus; a resin was applied to wounds to prevent them from bleeding and to aid in the healing process; ointments and dyes were applied to the skin; a special

82 plant was used which evidently promoted the growth of hair; and certain plants may also have been used in salves or poultices. Perhaps the most important empirical method of healing was the use of water as a type of hydrotherapy. It was employed for numerous ailments, both internal and external, suggesting that it was looked on as a significant therapeutic agent. The medicinal uses of water may well have evolved from the medical tradition of the Harappans. Before examining and presenting in translations the most significant hymns which constitute the principal doctrinal remains of the Vedic phase of Indian medicine, we should have some idea of the Vedic medical lore in later centuries. In the earliest Ayurvedic treatises of Bhela, Caraka and Susruta a reverence for Vedic medicine, as exemplified in the Atharvaveda, is advocated. In actual practice, however, a few of these early techniques seem to have survived. As an example, magico-religious utterances or mantras, which form the cornerstone of Vedic medicine, are found to have been used principally in five ways 1. the treatment of swellings or tumors and wounds or sores (sotha, vrana); 2. the treatment of poison (visa); 3. the treatment of mental disorders (unmatta, apasmara); 4. the treatment of fever (juara); and 5. the collection and preparation of certain medicines. Parallels in Vedic medicine occur for each category. Often the similarities between the archaic and the Ayurvedic uses of mantras are remarkable. Vestiges of Vedic medicine are clearly represented by these five groups. Agnivesa raised the point whether human beings are not suffering from the same diseases. What is the use of storing herbal medicines and different types of food to eradicate diseases? Atreya appreciated the point, but said that different diseases affect people. The reasons for such diseases are wind, water, place and time. Seasonal variation causes wind to blow hot or cold. Wind also carries dust and smoke. They are injurious to health. Contaminated water causes health hazards. Not only human

83 beings but also animals, fish and birds avoid using it. Breeding centres for reptiles, flies, mosquitoes etc. are not safe places for habitation and storage of food grains. Seasonal changes such as summer, rains, winter etc. also increase misery of living beings. All these contribute for the spread of disease. An environment free from all these extraneous causes is considered safe for healthy living. Timely check-up and administering proper medicine will help in curing diseases. Agnivesa is curious to know the reasons for the spread of disorder in elements which cause havoc and destruction of living beings. Atreya reminds him of the Vedic tradition that any deviation from the path of Dharma by both the ruler and the ruled causes large-scale calamities. He elaborates on the meaning of which is regarded as the main cause for spread of diseases and destruction. He reminds of Satyayuga when virtue guided the practice of Dharma and the result was that heavens had descended on this earth. People were free from fear, passion, jealousy, sorrow, disease, fatigue, stress, laziness, etc. All were happy and contented. Early part of Krtayuga was also very conducive for health, prosperity and progress. But the later part of Krtayuga witnessed a rapid decline in values and people became pleasure-loving. They gave up hard work. They became greedy and selfish. In the Tretayuga greed encouraged animosity resulting in group clashes due to frailties of the mind. The nature of the five elements also changed causing widespread havoc for the living beings. People lost their will power and became victims of Vata, Pitta and Kapha. In Kaliyuga now, the disappearance of Dharma has resulted in untold miseries and sufferings for living beings in the universe.12 The concept of the four yugas and the steady decline of values causing all sorts of maladies may not hold good in this scientific and 12. M.N. Joshi, op.cit. pp.58-59, Roopa Publications, Dharwad, 1999.

84 technological age. Just as diseases are not common to all and they vary from person to person and place to place in accordance with seasonal variations, similarly, the span of life is subject to be either short or long due to lack of discipline or a disciplined way of life. Lack of discipline causes untimely death and a disciplined way of life ends in. Atreya explains this secret to Agnivesa in a rational and homely style : akalamrtyu - 'O Anivesa! Listen to this. The axle of a chariot is well-tested and is of a fine quality. As time passes, the axle becomes weak and one day the chariot will break into pieces. In the same way, the body of a person with the passage of time becomes weak and one day his time comes. This is called kalamrtyu .' ' 13 The life span is broadly divided into three divisions - childhood, youth and old age. Susruta has divided life-span as and Infancy and childhood, youth and the old age. is divided into three divisions: ksirapa (drinking milk only), ksirannada (drinking milk and eating food) and the third is annada - only eating food. ksirapa is one year from birth, ksirannada is two years from birth and the rest is . The duration of 4 or middle age is from sixteen to seventy years. Beyond seventy it is old age when the system starts decaying. 14 Age of a patient is a great factor to be kept in mind by the physician before prescribing any medicine and determining its dosage. M one is Medicines are also regarded as belonging to three types based on divine elements daivavyapasraya ; the second is based on yuktivyapasraya elements and intellect and the third is based on self-restraint. Medicine pertaining to divine elements is medicine by uttering mantra mamtra . Combination of food and medicine is called yuktivyapasraya . Controlling of the mind is known as sattvavajaya . 13. Ibid. pp.60-61. 14. Ibid., Ibid., p.6.

85 Atreya makes a revelation to Agnivesa when he mentions the category of persons who are permanent patients. He says Bramanas, Government officers, courtezans and Vaisyas always suffer from diseases. A Brahmana always is engaged in Vedapatha and does not take his food in proper time. He neglects his health and suffers from diseases. A government officer always engaged in his routine does not care for his health. Courtezans have to fulfil the demands of the rulers. Vaisya, busy in his trade, gets stuck up to one place and has no time for maintaining his health. 15 This detailed description throws light on the minutest aspects of the subjects covered in the ancient texts as the science of life - anyda in our country from the earliest times. Even today ancient treatises on Ayurveda like Astanga Hrdaya and Astanga Sangraha are considered as source material in medicine by posterity for Vagbhata's rich contribution to this science of life. Madhavaka is considered as the clinical diagnostician in the 9 th century A.D. Vrinda's contribution to Ayurvedic medicine is also worth noting. He belonged to the 10 th century. Salihotra of the 8 th century B.C. is held in great respect as the father of Ancient Indian veterinary science. Treatment of human beings, of course, formed an important aspect of Indian medicine. But it is interesting to note that treatment of animals, birds, plants and trees was not neglected here. vrksayurveda Vrkshayurveda - by Surapala deals with the treatment of plant diseases. Matangalila of Narayana treats the subject of the diseases of elephants. 15. Ibid., pp 73-74.

86 Asvayurveda of Gana and Asvachikitsa by Jayaduta and Nakula are related to the treatment of horses : Asvaayurveda was an important branch of study and copious literature is found on this subject: 1. asvavaidyaka jayadatta 2. yogamamjari vardhamana 3. asvavaidyaka dipakara 4. asvavaidyaka agnipurana 5. yuktikalpataru 6. asvayurveda bhoja vagbhata Somesvara is also credited with having written a book on treatment of Horse and Elephant diseases.16 hastyayurveda - gajayurveda by palakapyamuni is another interesting book on diseases and treatment of elephants. In ancient India, Gold, Silver, Copper and Iron were frequently used in medicines. Iron was called Krsnayasa or the black metal; copper was called Lohitayasa or the red-metal. Harita (Yellow) was the name given to gold and Rajata (white) was the name by which silver was known. Yajurveda makes references to these metals as they were used for the fulfilment of sacrifices. 17 According to D. D. Mehta, "A regular science of mercury was developed as a branch of chemistry in ancient India. Iron and mercury are mentioned as aphrodisiacs and tonics by Varahamihira (587 A. D.). There were several preparations of iron, copper, mercury, and - 16. sivasekharamisra, manasollasa eka samskrtika adhyayana (Chowkhamba Vidyabhavan, Varanasi, 1996) pu . 196-203. 17. hiranyam ca me yascame sisam came trapuscame syamam ca me loham ca me | yajurveda 14.13.

87 other metals which were utilized in medicine. 18 Rasa meant mercury in the oldest Ayurvedic literature. Vatsyayana's Kamasutra refers to sixtyfour kalas, or arts, 19 that were practised by Indians of his time. Among them are mentioned the testing of gold and gems, the differentiating of gems according to their weight, hardness, lustre, transparency and colour, fusibility, especially when heated in combination with the alkalis, etc. As we can see from the above, subjects concerning Ayurveda have been found scattered in various literary works. King Somesvara has rendered great service to us by explaining these various subjects in a single monumental encyclopaedic work Manasollasa.