Theory of Atomism

The atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika system explains the order of creation and destruction of the non-eternal objects. It is only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire, which are produced and destroyed. The eternal constituents of the universe, the four kinds of atoms, and the five substances of akasa, dik, kala, manas and soul, do not come within the purview of the atomic theory, because these can neither be created not be destroyed. 1. Democritus, a Greek philosopher, held that even souls are composed of atoms, while Kanada distinguished between souls and atoms and regarded them as coeternal entities, which are not reducible to one another, each of them possessing an ultimate individuality or particularity which distinguishes it from all other eternal substances.

333 According to this joint school, all the objects of this phenomenal world are divisible into smaller parts, which are divisible into more minute parts, until we come to the indivisible atoms, i.e., these atoms cannot be split further and mark the limit of division. philosophers also shared this view. It has been stated by Sir James Jeans that, Greek "Many Greek philosophers from Democritus onward had imagined matter to consist, in the last resort, of hard indivisible pellets. These pellets were at first called atoms (incapable of being divided)." 1 The modern science has also propounded an atomic theory to give an explanation of this physical universe. According to it, the whole universe is made up of matter which can be sorted into Elements (numbering 105), compounds and mixtures. These elements, compounds and mixtures are made up of atoms which can be further divided into electron, proton and neutron. But even today, the scientists believe that stom is the mallest partiole of matter that can take part in a chemical action. 1010 1. Jmes Jeans: The New Background of science, the University of Michigan Press, 1959, Page 16. 2. For details of Atomic Theory in science, refer to Appendix No. F.

334 An atom has been defined in the Nyaya-Vaise sika system as ultimate particle, i.e., it is the minutest part of a thing. It has minute magnitude. It is said to be globular (parim andalya), though it has no parts. Hence, the atom is indivisible. We cannot perceive it through any of the organs of sense-perception. Such particle is necessarily supersensuous. Doubts have been expressed regarding its existence. But, we need not imply its non-existence simply from the fact that it is not perceived. There must be certain factors responsible for its non-perception. The existence of atoms can be proved with the help of the following arguments adduced by this joint system Firstly, according to Nyaya-Vaisesika system, the presence of magnitude (mahattva) in an object is one of the conditions of its perception but as the atom has negligible magnitude, so the question of its perception does not arise. The existence can be verified from th motes which can be observed floating in the sun-beam entering a room through a little ohink. These motes are called otes trasarenus or truti in the Nyaya system, and represent the 1. Gautama, Nyaya System, 4.2.17.

335 ultimate particles of matter in so far as they ar visible. Possessed of magnitude and being menable to sense-perception, these particles must be held to have component parts which, called d vyanukas, must, in their turn, possess similar constituents of their own for identical reasons. The components of these d vyanukas are called paramanus (atoms) which are indivisible by nature and incapable of further analysis. 1 Secondly, it is not within the powers of the ordinary men to perceive the atoms but these can be perceived by the Yogins. Yogins can have the direct perception of the atoms through the sense-organ and object contact. Thirdly, as the other has the highest limit of magnitude, so atoms mark the lowest limit of magnitude. There must be a definite limit of a sub-division in the រឿងទ atoms just as there is as there is a definite limit of extension in ether. Fourthly, composite products are produced and destroyed; they are changeable and divisible. 1. Kanada, Vaige sika-Sutra, 4.1.2. 2. Visvanatha, Sidhanta-Muktavall, Page 152. Therefore,

336 they must be composed of ultimate constituents or atoms which are eternal, unchangeable and indivisible. Composite products are divisible into parts, which also are divisible into maller parts. But we cannot go on sub-dividing them into smaller and smaller parts ad infinitim We must stop at the minutest atoms which are indivisible units in order to avoid infinite regress. 2 If Fifthly, if composite substances were infinitely divisible into minuter and minuter parts without end, they would all be composed of an equally infinite number of parts, and therefore, would be of equal magnitude. they were endlessly divisible into parts, differences in their magnitudes could not be accounted for. Even a mountain and a mustard seed would be of equal dimension, because they are equally divisible into an infinite number of minutest parts. So we must admit that atoms are the minutest parts of composite substances, which are indivisible. There are four kinds of atoms corresponding to four 1. Ibid. Page 146. 2. Ibid Page 150. 3. IDA Pages 150-51.

337 1 classes of material substances, viz., atoms of earth, atoms of water, atoms of light and atom of air. The atoms of earth have the qualities of odour, colour, taste and temperature. The atoms of water have the qualities of colour, taste and temperature. The atous of light have the qualities of colour and temperature and the atoms of air have the quality of temperature. Thus the different kinds of atoms have different kinds of secondary qualities. Colour, taste, odour, and temperature are said to be secondary qualities. Besides, the four kinds of atoms have the common qualities of number, magnitude, distinctness, conjunction, disjunction, remoteness, and proximity, which may be said to be primary qualities. But Demooritus and Leucippus, the Greek philosophers, though recognized the reality of indivisible and iperceptible laws, believed in an indefinite number of atoms devoid of qualities, but endued with quantities. According to these philosophers, atoms do not possess qualities but differ in figure, size, weight, position and arrangement. In other words, the atoms have no 1. Sanker Miara, Upaskara, 8.1.2.

338 qualitative differences but only quantitative differences. But Kanada, on the other hand, recognized the qualitative and quantitative differences in the atoms, though they are equally indivisible and possess the same minutest magnitude. He did not accept the views of Greek philosopher that the atoms are devoid of secondary qualities. He did not reduce their qualitative differences to quantitative differences. Though an atom according to the Jainas, is ultimate, indivisible, eternal unit of the physical element like that of Kanada, but there is a fundament al difference between the Vaise siks atomism and the Jaina atomism. Unlike the Valse sikas, the Jains hold that each atom has colour, taste, odour and touch. The atoms are homogeneous, they are not different kinds of stoms corresponding to the elements of earth, water, light and air. These homogeneous atoms became heterogeneous by varying combinations and develop into different elements. Thus the Jainas do not hold qualitative differences mong the primary atoms. The Valse sikas, on the other hand hold that there are different kinds of atoms which have different qualities, which we have mentioned above. Thus, the atoms of earth, water, light and air are not homogeneous. The Buddhists split reality into discrete and disconnected moments or point-instants called ksanas, the

339 ultimate reals. Atom, according to the Nyaya-Vaise sika also, is a mere point which has no extension in space, but speaking in terms of time, it is just the opposite of the Buddhist point--instant. Not merely has it a duration but is also eternal. Another point of difference between the two is that the atom of Vaisesika is a substance which possesses not only qualities like smell, taste, colour, touch, etc., but many universals like satta (existence), dravyatva(substanceness), prthivitve (earthness), etc., and also the differentiating entity called visesa. All these properties--qualities, universals and vise sa--are objective entities having their essence separate from that of their substratum (atom). The atom of the Vaigesika conception, therefore, being a substance and containing those separate entities (properties) within it, would appear to be a complex object. Of course, it is not so in a physical sense because qualities, etc., although separate entities, are not material entities. Ksanas of the Buddhists, on the other hand, are conceived as dharmas (properties). Hence the term 'ksana' can never be used for the atom of Nyaya-Vaien sika. The Greek philosophers like Democritus and Epicurus stated that the atoms are by nature in motion. But Vaige sikas believed that the atoms are by nature inactive

340 and motionless. During the dissolution of the world, the atoms subsist without producing any effect. They then remain isolated and motionless. According to the Valge sikas, the movement of the ultimate atoms is due to an external agent. The earlier Vaise sikas hold that the movement of the ultimate atoms arises from a peculiar 1 dharma. Prasastapada also agrees with this view. He says, "Actions which we find appearing in the rudimentary elements (mahabhutesu), and for which we cannot find any cause either by sense-perception or by inference, and which are yet found to be useful or harmful to us, must be regarded as produced by these unseen agencies (adrata- 2 karitam)." But the unseen agencies, being unconscious, cannot combine them with one another and adjust them to the experiences of the individual souls. They cannot guide the world-process and account for creation and dissolution and variety of the world. That is why the later Vaise sikas became theistic and introduced the deistic concept of God to account for creation and dissolution. God does not create atoms, other, time, and space; they are co-eternal with Him. God produces motions in the atoms and combine s 1. Kanada, Vaisesika Sutra, 4.2.7. 2. Prasastapada Bhasya, Page 309.

341 them into composite products with the aid of unseen agencies or merit and demerit residing in the individual souls for their enjoyment and sufferings. Now, when motion is imparted to atoms by God with the aid of unseen agencies, they begin to vibrate (parispanda) and immediately change into dyads (dvyanuk). The dyad is minute (anu), short and imperceptible, and is produced by the combination of two atoms. Three dyads from a triad (tryanuk) which is great (mahat), long (dirgha) and perceptible. By the conjunction of four triads, a quartrad (caturanuk) is produced. In this way, this process goes on following the law of geometrical progression and not the arithmetical progression. The quartrads are combined into larger and larger composite substances, till we have the great earth, the great water, the great fire and the great air. Thus, all physical things are produced by the combination of atoms. Creation, therefore, means the combination of atoms in different proportions and destruction means the dissolution of such combinations. Throughout all the changes from cause (atoms) to effect (production); these atoms do not change either in number or in any other aspect. They give rise to various products which undergo changes but they themselves remain

342 unchanged. For example, if any product is destroyed and is reduced to its ultimate particles, it will be found that the number of the atoms out of which that object was produced, remains as before. In other words, the ultimate matter remains the same throughout the entire process of change. It is also a fact that the weight of the totality of causes is equal to the weight of the particular effect produced out of these causes, which means that in creation of the physical world, the law of conservation of weight holds good. The modern science has also verified the truth of this law. 1 1. In science, 'the law of Conservation of Mass' which corresponds to 'the Law of Conservation of Energy' states that mass is neither created nor destroyed and that the tot al mass of the substances involved in a physical or chemical change remains unchanged. However, in 1905, the German-American physicist, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) found that mass and energy ere inter convertible as expressed by the equation (Emme²) where Emenergy, m is the mass and a the velocity of light. To be even more correct, the law of conservation of mass and energy have been combined and the correct approach is that the total of the mass and the energy is neither created nor destroyed but may be transformed. (William S. See se and Guido H. Daube: Basic Chemistry, Prentice Hall, INC, 1972, pp. 59-62.

343 Chemical action is responsible for all possible changes in this physical world where earthly partioles and products predominate. Only the earthly particles and products, after having come in contact with heat particles, change their qualities, such as colour, taste, mell and touch. The se changes occur only in earth and 2 atoms of earth when objects come in contact with heat. This course of change is known as chemical action. For example, our food and drinks change their qualities as these come in contact with heat. All growth and decay are the result of chemical action. In science air conditioning and referigeration have been devised to protect the eatables from the effect of heat. 4 Other substances such as water, light, and air, are not effected by chemical action. It is only through 1. Kanada, Vaisesika Sutra, 7.1.6. 2. Vydmacivacarya, Vyomavati, Page 446. 3. In science, such changes in which new substances are formed and there is a change in the composition of the substance, are termed as chemical changes. For example burning of wood, rusting of iron, etc. Whenever a chemical change occurs, a chemical action is said to have taken place. A chemical action proceeds due to some sort of chemical attraction called chemical affinity between various atoms. (P.L. Soni, Fundamental Inorganic Chemistry, Sultan Chand and Sons, 1967, Pages 16-18). Page 67. 4. Udayana, Kirnavall, Page 67.

344 contact with earthly particles that water, for instance, appears to have changed its qualities but this is not a real change. We know that water is naturally cool; it appears hot after it is boiled simply because earthly particles mixed with water have become hot due to its contact with heat. Similarly, if there appears any change in the taste, smell and colour of water, after it has come in contact with heat particles, it is due to the presence of earthly particles in water. As a matter of fact, even after being boiled, water does not give up its 1 natural qualities such as colour, taste and touch, The same is the case with air. It appears hot not because of its contact with heat but because of the presence of earthly particles in it. Thus, these are not the real changes. Though, the Nyaya and Valeika have unanimity on almost all the basic tenets of philosophical problems, yet 1. Udayana, Kirnavall, Pagos 67-68. 2. In science, such changes (conversions), in which the identity or the composition of a substance does not change, are called Physical Changes. Thus, a physical change is simply a conversion from one form of a substance to another, e.g., changes in state of water, from ice to liquid to water are examples of physical changes. Ice Liquid water 2 water vapour.

345 they differ in regard to the process of chemical action. The Vaise sikes adopt the theory of 'Pilupaka'. According to this theory, there is first the disintegration of the whole into its atoms and then a re-integration of them into a whole. For example, when the jar is baked the old one is destroyed, 1.8., resolves into atoms, The application of the heat generates the red colour in atoms, which are again brought together and a new jar is produced. All this complicated process is beyond place perception, since, it takes place with extreme rapidity in an interval of nine moments. The Naiyayikas, on the other hand, advocate the theory of 'Pithar speka', by which the change of colour is effected in both the atoms and products simultaneously. This view scoms to be more reasonable, as if the first jar be destroyed and a new one substituted for it, shall not be able to identify it as the old jar. We see the same jar as before except for the difference in colour. Moreover, the Vaisesika view seems to make even the odour of the earth-atoms non-eternal. The fact that sensible things are operated on the heat shows that they are not absolutely solid but are porous. 1. Madhvacarya, Sarva-darshan-Sangraha, Ch. 10. 2. Vacaspati Misra, Tatparyatika, Page 355; Jyanta, Nyaya Manjari, Page 438.

346 This chapter presents an analysis of the nature of the physical world according to the Joint System. The views of the Greek philosophers and the other eminent authorities on the subject have also been incorporated wherever relevant. The views of the Joint System have been substantiated with the help of the existing knowledge of the physical sciences. The modern scientists have raised certain fallacies pertaining to the views expressed by the ad vo cates of the Joint System regarding the nature advocates of the physical world, which have been exmined below. The basic objection of the modern scientists is that the area covered by the Joint System is restricted in its scope and it does not propound a clear and ultimate explanation of the phenomenon of the physical world. Their contention is that the basic elements like gold, silver, hydrogen, etc., have not been accorded any place in the Joint System analysis. For example, if gold is split up, the smallest partiale obtained will remain gold with all its natural properties. These particles of gold do not bear any relation with the qualities of Mahabhutas. This objection of the modern scientists levelled against the tenets of the Joint System is quite untenable. To trace the characteristics of the earth is to attempt to find the shirt in the cotton. According to the Nyaya-

347 Vaise sika system gold particles had been existing before the Mahabhutas came into being. The evidence can be collected from the known to the unknown and the truth be ascertained from the able work done by the learned 1 philosophers of the Joint System. Gautama has traced the origin of this visible world from the visible causes. He argues that a body is not produced from another body-a pot is not produced from another pot and all is not the cause of all. Like produces like. A pot is produced from the pots herds of the like material. This is the testimony of perception which to the highest evidence. It can be inferred from this experience that the cause, of the gross elements of earth, etc., are the most subtle, supersensible and eternal substances possessing colour and other attributes. The existence of such substances is thus selfrevealed. The inference is from the known to the unknown. Moreover, the physical scientists do not explain the origin of the elements and admit them as the basic causes of this physical world. In the same way, the philosophers of the Joint System have visualized this world on the atsumption of four kinds of 'paramanus'. They did not 1. Gautama, Nyaya Sutra, 4.1.11.

348 feel the necessity of going beyond these four kinds of 'par manus' as the authors of this system thought it 'paremanus' sufficient to enlighten the scholars of those days. Therefore, it is wrong to say that the philosophers of the Joint System were ignorant beyond that stage. The modern physical scientists take credit of having discovered the facts of this physical world which, they believe, were not known earlier. They have found the real source of energy in electrons, protons, etc. (refer to the Appendix (f) for details). However, they have not been able to determine the number of electrons, etc., in a partiale of energy as yet. Therefore, the electrons, etc., cannot be accepted as additional basic elements. The physical scientists admit that, so far, the atom is the mallest partiale of matter that can only take part in a chemical reaction. These are only the parts of the elements and the properties exhibited by them are the properties of the elements. The Joint System points out that the atoms have unlimited energy in them. The physical sciences could discover only a little. They can know only that part of the energy in the element which has become prominent, due to the will of God. Thus, in the ultimate analysis, it is the concept of element and not that of electrons, protons, etc., which is the basis of the physical sciences as electrons, etc.,

349 cannot have independent existence. Hence the discoveries made by the physical sciences, are neither an advance upon the Joint system nor are they fundsmentally different from it. However, it still needs a great effort to unearth the treasure of knowledge hidden in our ancient Indian Philosophical System