2. Origin of Nyaya System

Though no definite date is found for the origin of the science of reasoning, yet it may be traceable in Upanisadic period. In this period, the art of discussion was regarded as a subject of study and it probably passed then by the name of 'vakovakya'. We find references to such an art under the name of the Nyaya and Vakovakya in some of the Upanisadas. In a dialogue narrated in Chandogya Upanisad between Santatkumar and Narada, the former asks Narada to enumerate the sciences studies by Len deg him so far. Amongst the sciences enumerated by Narada, there is a mention of Valovakya, which has been explained by senkracarya and others as the science of reasoning. The entire yajnavalkya kanda of Brahdaranakya Upanisad is based on a very high type of reasoning. In other reason Upanisads also such as Chendogya, Katha, Kana, and 1. Madhvacarya, Sarva-darsana Sangraha under the head Aksapada darsana, Page 114. 2. Chandogya Upanisad, 7.l.l. auba, 11.7 5. Kena, 1.6.

yn 31 others, we find ample proofs of the existence of the science of reasoning. Mahabharta is also full of references to the science 1 of reasoning. In the Adiparva of Mahabharta, it is mentioned along with the Veda and Cikitsa (the science of medicine), and the hermitage of Kasyapa is described as being filled with sages who were versed in the Nyaya-tatt va (categories of logic), and who knew the true meaning of demonstration, objection and conclusion. The santiparva refers to numerous tenets of Nyaya supported by reasoning and scripture, while in the Asvamedhaparva" we find that the sacrificial ground of Yudhisthira was crowded by logician who employed arguments and counter-arguments to vanquish one another's idea. In the Sabhaparva, the sage Narada is described as being versed in logic and skilful in distinguishing unity and plurality, conjunction and co-existence, genus and species, etc., capable of 4 deciding questions by evidences and ascertaining the validity and invalidity of a five-membered syllogism. Besides, the Mahabharta has mentioned the word 'Nyayatantra' 1. Mahabharta, Adiparva, Ch. I. 2. Ibid. Ch. 70. 3. Mahabharta, Santiparva, Ch. 21. 4. Mahabharta, Agvamedhaparva, Ch. 85. 5. Mahabharta, Sabhaparva, Ch. 5. 6. Mahabharta, Santiparva, Ch. 210, Verse 22. 1 6

32 used by the debaters. Simler other instances of the popularity of the science of reasoning may be cited from the Mahabherta. Many proofs are available in various learned documents which establish the value of reasoning for ascertaining the highest truth. In Padma-Purana, logie is included among the fourteen principal branches of learning, promulgated by God Visnu. In Matsya-Purana, Nyaya-Vidya together with the Vedas, is said to have 2 emanated from the mouth of Brahma himself. Gautama-Dharma 3 Sutra prescribes a course of training in logic (Nyaya) for the king and acknowledges the utility of 'Tarka' or logic in the administration of justice though in ease of conclusions proving incompatible, ultimate decision is directed to be made by reference to persons versed in the Vedas. Manu says that dharma or duty is to be ascertained by logical reasoning not opposed to the injunctions of the Vedas. He recommends logic as necessary study for a king and a logician to be an indispensable member of a legal assembly. Yajnavalkya counts nyaya or logic among the fourteen principal sciences. Kautilya in his Arthasestra characterizes anviksiki (logie) 1. Padma Purana--Vide Muir's Sanskrit Text, Vol. III, Page 27. 2. Matsya-Purina, 3.2. 3. Gautama Dharma Sutre, Ch. II. 4. Manu Samihta, ch. 12, Verse 106. 5. Iajnevalkya Samhita, Ch. I, Verse 3. 6. Kautilya, Arthasastra, Ch. II.

as the lamp of all sciences, the resource of all actions and the permanent shelter of all virtues. 2 1 Science of reasoning was called 'Hetu-Sastra' or 'Hatu-Vidya', as is evident from the Marmsamhita, Mahabharta, etc. It was also called 'Tarkavidya', the art of debate, or 'Vada-Vidya', the art of discussion as 4 is referred to in Manusamhita, Mahabharta, Skandapurana Gautama-dharma Sutra, Pamayana "amayans " end Yajna-valkyasamhita. The above mentioned analysis points out that the science of reasoning existed in an early age. 6 9 7 This science of reasoning was termed as *Anviksikd' in the very early days. Manu uses the term *Anviksiki' as an equivalent for Atma-Vidya. But the scope of *Anviksik' was not merely limited to Atma-Vidya but it also comprised many other elements as mentioned by 10 eminent scholars. Kautilya recognized Anviksiki as a distinct branch of study over and above the three, viz., TrayI (the Vedas), Vartta (commerce) and DandanIti(polity). While the Atma-Vidya embodied certain dogmatic assertions 1. Manu Sathita. 2.11. 2. Mahabharts, Idiparva, 1.67; Santiparva, 210, 22 and Asvamedhaparva, 85.27, etc. 3. Manusamhita, 6.50; 8.269; 12,106, 111. Mahabharta, Santiparva, 180.47 and 246.18. 5. Skandapurana, ali kakhanda, Ch. 17. 6. Gantama Dharma-Sutra, the il. 7. Ramayana, 1.13.23; 7*53.15. 8. Yajnavalkya Samhita, 3.292. 9. Mann-Samhita, 7.43. 10. Kautilya, Arthaaastra, 1-2, Page 6. 33

.34 about the nature of the Soul, Anviksid contained reasons supporting those assertions. Inviksiki in fact, treated របងទ of two subjects, viz., the Soul and theory of reasons. Vatsyayena observes that Anviksiki without the theory of reasons would have like the Upanisad been a mere Atma,,Vidya or adhyatamavidya. It is the theory of reasons which distinguished it from the same. The Anviksiki continued, however, for many centuries to be used in the general sense of a science which embraced both the subjects of 2 philosophy and logio. Kautilya uses the term 'Anviksiki' in the sense of general philosophy as he includes Sankhya, Yoga and Lokayata in Anviksiki. Later on, it assumed a more specific form and became the science of pure reasoning and developed into logic. Subsequently, with the introduction of syllogism or proper reasoning, it came to be known as Nyaya. This is evident from the Nyaya-Bhasya of Vatsyayana when he considers Nyaya-Vidya as the fourth science of AnviksikI. 3 But the term 'Nyaya' in the sense of logic was never used before the first century A.D. Panini (about 350 B.C.) did not know the word 'Nyaya' in the sense of logio. He derives this word from the root 'n' evidently in the sense 1. Vatsyayana, Nyaya-Bhasya, l❤l●l● 2. Kautilya, Arthasastra, 1-2, Page 6. 3. Vatsyayana, Nyaya Bhasya, i●l.l. 1.1.1.

35 of justice, in his Astadhyayi. The interpretation of the word 'Nyaya' may be traceable in the disputations and debates amongst scholers trying to find out the right meaning of the Vedic texts for use in sacrifices, and also in those disputations which took place between the adherents of different schools of thought while trying to refute one another. It seems that those laws which clarified the ides of a sentence were called 'Nyaya'. This is why 'Nyaya' was applied for Purva Mimamsa to find 2 out the right meaning of the Vedic texts. Buhler pointed out the application of the word 'Nyaya' for Purva-Minamsa in Apastamb Sutra (11.4.8.13 and 11.6.14.13). In meny treatises of Purva-Mimemsa, as Nyaya-Kanika, NyayaRatnakaro, Nyaya-Ratan-Mala, etc., the word 'Nyaya' has been used for Purva-MImersa. Among those laws which were fixed in Purva Mimemsa to find out the right meaning of the Vedio texts for use in sacrifices, inference was most important. In our daily life also, we find that inference occupies an important place in comprehending the phenomenon. Because of the pivotal position of inference, it can be named as 'Nyaya'. When inference was explained comprehensively for the right meaning of the Vedic texts, it came into being as an independent science, and thus the 1. Panini, AstadhyayI, 3.3.122; 4.2.60. 2. Buhler, Sacred Laws (S.B.E.), Part I, Apastamb Sutra, Introduction, Page 27.

word 'Nyaya' of Purva Mimemsa was now used for this new science or new philosophy. Any how, this new philosophy could not be confined to the knowledge of inference only, as every philosophical system should be perfect in its scope from all sides, though it may be specially interested into the enquiry of a particular field. So, Nyaya took its philosophical structure from Vaisosike. Although Hyaya concentrates on inference but along with this, it examines the concepts of 'self', 'pleasure', 'pain', and 'moksa', also. 36