War Planning

(a) Selection of the field suitable to the four-fold army:

The four-fold army has to be employed sensibly as not all territories are suitable for all the four divisions (Nītiprakāśikā VI. 68-71):

One has to choose a battle-field that is favourable to one’s forces organization is about the choice of land which is suitable to the qualities of the four-fold army. While smooth surface is needed for the three forces (ratha, thuraga, padādi) uneven land is preferable for the elephant force. On the basis of this the text says:

(i) The ground that is devoid of trees, big rocks, anthills, bushes and thorns is suitable for infantry (Nītiprakāśikā VI. 68): [...]

(ii) That which is without mire, stumps, stones, even is good for horses (Nītiprakāśikā VI. 69): [...]

(iii) That which has no cornfields, pitfalls, trees and vegetation and pleasant is suitable for chariots (Nītiprakāśikā VI. 70): [...]

(iv) That which has trees and creepers, without slush or caverns, easily mountable rocks, uneven is suitable for elephants (Nītiprakāśikā VI. 71): [...]

The commentary Tattvavivṛti provides some quaint details here. For instance, explaining the term “apasāra” (in verse68) Tattvavivṛti cites Medinīkośa and explains the term as “fit for the use of the infantry”:

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Again the term “nirdarā” (verse 71) is explained directly as [...]–the place “where there are no caverns”, thereby quite easy for the elephants to traverse.

That country where there is ample space for the exercising routines of soldiers of one’s troops is considered very good, says Śukranīti (IV. 7. 221-231).

Śāṛṅgadharapaddhati^[1] (1681-2) describes the best theater for war as that land which is without floods, covered with mild dust or an uninhabited plain is the ideal battlefield. It says that the battlefield, which is damp, hard, full of gravel and water; contains granite and shrubs should be abandoned.

Agnipurāṇa^[2] (236) mentions about the way warfare is to be conducted in forests, on rivers and on rainy days. It opines that open-field wars are difficult.

(b) War camp:

A strategical consideration for the commander is the encampment, usually called Skandāvāra. Nītiprakāśikā says that an encampment is to be constructed in a place that is pleasant, with plenty of water to be located. The place should be reached by a horse rider from the capital city within a day’s time. Tents are to be erected for the soldiers and others. Here too, food, weapon reserves and security are to be taken care of.

The camp should have a broad rampart, garrisoned by archers (Nītiprakāśikā VI. 29-30):

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The commentary largely helps in understanding the terminologies used in the text–

(1) “Āśvina’ (in verse 29) is explained as the distance covered by a horse in a day’s time. For the explanation he cites Amarakośa in support with says (1. 4. 17): [...]

(2) The term parikham is defined as an encircling ditch digged as protection:[...]

(3) Kāṇḍapṛṣṭha is explained as “garrisoned by archers” quoting Amarakośa (1.8.66): [...]

(4) Again, VI. 41cd dictates that war camps should be made in an excellent manner, at separate places:[...]

All must be provided with water, all necessary items of dress, food and finances.

Expert medical aid as well as skilled artisans with all necessary things should also be placed in the camp (Nītiprakāśikā VI. 42-3):

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Arthaśāstra devotes a chapter to the camp of the army in book V. It states that the site has to be approved by the army commander, building expert, astrologer as well as the carpenter. The camp could either be circular, rectangular, square or according to the natural geometric shape of the terrain. The king’s apartment,royal residence,treasury, administrative offices, war animals are all contained. The guards should take positions in the periphery. Four gates, six roads and nine divisions, with a moat, rampart, parapet, towers and gates are to be constructed. This helps in case of sudden danger.

The Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata exemplify this. Bharata’s camp on the banks of the Ganges (Ayodhya. 24) and the camps of Pāṇḍavas and Kauravas (Udyoga parva) during the Kurukṣetra war are in accordance with this description.

(c) Fortification of Capital:

The text advises the king to leave the capital safeguarded by appointing trustworthy and intelligent people as superintendents of the harem, the seraglio, treasury, his citizens and the kingdom and place his reserve force behind in proper array (Nītiprakāśikā VI. 31-2):

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(d) Pre-march necessities:

Before marching out with the army, the king has to send pathfinders and artisans to make roads. The artisans include supervisors, diggers, carpenters, assessors, tree-planters, bridge-makers, geographers, hunters and spies.

Once the march has commenced certain places are to be avoided like the hermitages, sacred places, cemeteries, burning husks, hair or skull and marshy lands (Nītiprakāśikā VI. 33-5):

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Here, Tattvavivṛti gives interesting explanations for two words in VI. 35:

(i) [...]–as those who are hidden in secret places–[...]

(ii) [...]–are spies who know all details related to the matter to which he had been deputed–[...]

(e) Requirements for the march:

“Army marches on its belly” says a maxim. If the supplies and administration wings of the army perform a good task then the morale and fighting spirit of the soldiers stays high. This involves meticulous planning of provisions considering the local availability of supplies, the terrain of the battle-site and camp, transportation of these supplies at the right time. Above all, the modus operandi of the commander is a determining factor for the supplies division.

The warriors need to possess armours and weapons, ropes, horse-shoes, wooden chisels, knives, wheels, cramp-irons, saws, leather water-bags, baskets, shovels, needles, bulls, camels, medicines for men and animals. Apart from these, musical instruments, beverages, cotton, flint, iron; wooden vessels, iron and copper basins, brass implements, stone-cutters, grindstones, balances, awls, boots, breeches, whips, hounds, bamboo sticks, traps and fish-nets, spittoons, perfumed oil, yellow orpiment, and the like (Nītiprakāśikā VI. 51-4):

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Agnipurāṇa offers the idea that when the king feels his forces are not strong enough for the offensive attack, he may opt for a slow march. Else, he may go ahead with a forced march (Agnipurāṇa. 242. 6).

Arthaśāstra (X. 2. 4-13) elucidates on the manner of going about with the march. The probable halts on the way of the march is to be calculated in proportion to the food and fuel reserves in hand. The food and fodder stocks should always be stored in excess. Alternatively, the troops could be assigned to store it in regular intervals of the march. The order of the march is such that the king and womenfolk should be in the centre flanked by equestrian warriors; trailed by elephantry and in the rear, the commander-in-chief has to be present. During such a march, fording should be done with the help of elephants and boats.

Śiśupālavadha (V. 24)^[3] gives a vivid account of the military suppliers delivering their supplies in the halting stations.

(f) Season for waging war:

Nītiprakāśikā (VII. 51) advices that the month of mārgaśīrṣa is much suited for starting on war expeditions since, during this month roads will be clear and the weather pleasant.

This favorable climate will last till caitra when spring would start leaving out four months in time to win over the enemy:

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Mahābhārata (V. 83. 7) also indicates the ideal time for a march. It says that in case of long marches, the month of mārgaśīrṣa is to be preferred. In case of short distance marches, month of caitra is suitable.

Footnotes and references:

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