Preface (Introduction to the Nītiprakāśikā)

Ancient Indians have contributed for the growth of sciences in a natural way. The curiosity of man to pursue adventure eventually led to the political, social and economic development of society. War, with its planning and execution has also proved to be a source for the advancement of sciences. It offers scope for absorbing study on understanding the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of actions during war.

War science is defined as that which relates to the theory, practice and constant training behind preparation and conduct of war for the upkeep of national integrity. References and passages regarding war are numerous in Vedic literature. The Indian epics are great authorities in this field. Treatises in daṇḍanīti and rājanīti like the Nītiprakāśikā of Vaiśampāyana, Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya, Nītisāra of Kāmandaka, Śukranīti of Uśanas and Dhanurveda of Vaśiṣṭha talk scientifically about the political, social, moral, cultural, geographical and economic aspects of war. Among these, the lesser known Nītiprakāśikā of Vaiśampāyana, is a sincere account of war science.

Nītiprakāśikā has been quoted by Dr. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar in his War in Ancient India in addition to other literary sources. Here, Dr. Dikshitar comprehensively deals with war theories and renders a comparative picture of ancient Indian war systems as gleaned from Sanskrit and Tamil literary sources. Dr. Gustav Oppert in his book, On the Weapons, Army Organization and Political Maxims of Ancient Hindus has examined various weapons giving their minute details as described in Nītiprakāśikā. He has also elaborately described the army organization and political maxims as in the Śukranīti. A critical analysis of Nītiprakāśikā as a text on war science is the intended study of the present dissertation.

As on date, only three editions of the text, Nītiprakāśikā are available. They are:

i. The first edition by Dr. Gustav Oppert in 1882 based on manuscripts in Telugu and Grantha scripts. This edited text was published in Devanāgari script. This publication begins with a preamble of the contents of the text in English by Dr. Oppert.

ii. Another edition of the text along with its commentary by name Tattvavivṛti, of Sitārāma was brought out in 1953 by Sri. T. Chandrasekaran based on the manuscripts available in the Government Oriental Manuscripts Library (GOML), Chennai.

iii. Recently in 2014, a critical edition of the text by Dr. Urmi S Shah titled the Nītiprakāśikā of Vaiśampāyana has been published. This critical edition is based on the four manuscripts collected from GOML, Chennai, three from Oriental Research Institute, Mysore and one from Oriental Institute, Vadodara along with the above mentioned two editions. Dr. Shah has provided–details of the critical edition, a study of the text focusing on Rājadharma, the critically edited version of Nītiprakāśikā and the translation of the text in full.

Despite all this, we see that Nītiprakāśikā awaits investigation as a treatise on war-science. The text abounds in description of weapons, strategies and policies along with concepts relating to the administration and organization of the armed forces. It is indeed a mine of information on war. This dissertation will analyse the text in full with the support of the available commentary of Sītārāma and strive to prove the relevance of the work as a treatise on war science by mapping its theories with actual epic wars and by surveying its influence on other contemporary or later Sanskrit literary sources.

In accordance with the above objective, the thesis has been organized into six chapters as detailed below:

Chapter I: Introduction—War in Sanskrit Literature

War is as old as mankind. India has witnessed wars since the times of the Ṛgveda, the earliest extant literature of the world. One fourth of the Rgvedic hymns are in praise of Indra, the God of war. The Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata are basically war-oriented and have emerged as authorities in the field of warfare. Purāṇas like Agnipurāṇa, Viṣṇudharmottara purāṇa and Skanda purāṇa have eloquent descriptions on war weapons and defensive structures. Among the pañcamahākāvyas, the Raghuvaṃśa, Kirātārjunīya and Śiśupālavadha put forth political, administrative and war-related technical details. Historical kāvyas like Harṣacarita and Rājataraṅgiṇī record details on wars of their times.

With these literary evidences on one hand, there is another separate genre of literature dealing with war science and polity. Of them, the well-known Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya speaks on the entire gamut of concepts related to ruling a country effectively. It encompasses views on taking care of subjects, staying vigilant, maintaining troops in war-ready state even during peace times and waging open or hidden wars. The renowned Nītisāra by Kāmandaka is almost an abbreviated version of Arthaśāstra. The Śukranīti of Uśanas records useful information regarding politics and military science. Dhanurveda of Vaśiṣṭha is celebrated for its complete description on a collection of weapons. Encyclopaedic texts like the Mānasollāsa (Abhilaṣitārthacintāmaṇi), Sāmrājya Lakṣmīpīṭhikā and Śivatattvaratnākara, digests like the Nītimayūkha, Rājanīti-ratnākara and Rājadharma-koustubha provides a fund of information on war science.

The text Nītiprakāśikā shall be studied as special text on war science with this background drawing information wherever necessary from these texts.

Chapter II: Author, Commentator, the text Nītiprakāśikā and the Commentary

Author:

The work is attributed to sage Vaiśampāyana of Mahābhārata fame. Apart from the reference by the commentator Sītārāma, there are no other evidences to establish the authorship of the sage. Dr. Oppert in his Preamble to the first edition of the text assigns Vaiśampāyana to the period immediately succeeding the Mahābhārata. However, Dr.Shah does not agree with the proofs cited by Dr.Oppert. She points out to the fact that no other work apart from Vikramārkacarita cited by the commentator (which she has not been able to trace) has referred to Nītiprakāśikā. She doubts the antiquity of the work for lack of internal and external evidences. An attempt is made here to arrive at the probable date of the author.

Commentator

The commentator Sītārāma records his father's name clearly in the beginning of the commentary as Nañjuṇḍa of Kauṇḍinya gotra. Dr. Oppert records that, a learned Kanarese Brahmin of Mysore whom he had consulted gave him the oral information that Sītārāma had lived in the place about 300 years ago. Dr.Shah agrees more or less with this view. From the colophonic details of two manuscripts, Dr.Shah decides that the commentary was written in the year 1697 A.D. Thus we see that both of them concur that the commentator is probably a south Indian Brahmin, likely from Karnataka (given his father’s name) and that he lived around 16th -17th cent. A.D. Based on the vast references that Sītārāma has provided in the commentary it is quite likely that he belonged to the time period proposed by Dr. Oppert and Dr. Shah.

The text Nītiprakāśikā

The name (Nītiprakāśikā) itself shows that it is a work which illuminates the science of polity. There are 546 verses divided into eight sargas. The text unfolds as a conversation between sage Vaiśampāyana and king Janamejaya, the great grandson of Arjuna. Three editions of the text, of which two are with the commentary of Sītārāma are available in print and all these have been utilized in this thesis for analyzing the text.

Contents of Nītiprakāśikā

In the introductory sarga with 57 verses, the sage visits king Janamejaya with the intention of narrating to him the political and military concepts. On being welcomed by the king with due regard, the sage narrates to him verbatim, the Dhanurveda (science of weapons) as propounded by Brahmā and taught by him to Pṛthu.

The second sarga in 64 verses, deals with the different types of classification of weapons, such as Mukta (12), Amukta (20), Muktāmukta (93) and Mantramukta (6). An enumeration of these weapons is provided in this chapter.

The third sarga consisting of 40 verses speaks only on the Khaḍga (sword). It starts with description of the purpose and utility of the sword. It proceeds to describe the appearance of the mythical Khaḍgapuruṣa and records the various movements, names and details of the sword.

Sargas four and five with 52 and 59 verses respectively, provide the description of form and movements of the Mukta and Amukta weapons which were enumerated in the second sarga. Nearly 20 verses are allocated for the Dhanus (bow) whereas other weapons are described in about 1 or 2 verses each.

The sixth sarga is the longest with 111 verses. It covers various aspects of war strategies and actual methodology of fighting. It begins with the enumeration of troop-formations, their parts, varieties and composition. Then, it describes the various sections of army, qualifications and appointment of various officials, awards and rewards for meritorious soldiers and welfare measures for these warriors.

The seventh sarga comprising of 64 verses enumerates the army units starting from the basic unit of Patti which grows in size to finally become the all encompassing Akṣauhiṇī. The banners used in the units, details of monthly salaries of the officials, ethical practices to be adopted during war and regulations to be followed by a king for training his men, punishing offenders and fighting with enemies are discussed here.

The eighth and final sarga having 100 verses is a comprehensive account of the royal duties and privileges. It provides a detailed time table for the king, the manner in which officials are to be appointed and types of punishments for the various war crimes. It also gives hints on village and city administrative set-up.

Commentary

The commentary Tattvavivṛti, elaborates on the different tenets of Nītiprakāśikā. It quotes from a variety of literary sources, like the epics, nīti texts and kośas. These quotations substantiate the author’s view-point or add value to the textual content. For instance, the commentary gives the definition of śastras and a detailed note on the various types of targets for the archers with examples. The commentary deals elaborately on different aspects of war science thereby enabling us to have an idea of the situation before and after war in those days.

Chapter III: War Weapons

Wars are unimaginable without weapons. They determine the course of war and only the army that uses weapons effectively emerges victorious. The Saṃhitā and Brāhmaṇa sections of the Vedas refer not only to war, but also to the inevitable aspect of war–the weapons. They cite the powerful Vajrāyudha and the ubiquitous bow and arrow in several instances. There are hymns which enumerate similar kinds of weapons. Likewise, the epics and classical literature, deal with arms and armaments along with their applications in the battle-field.

One hundred and thirty two (132) weapons have been described in Nītiprakāśikā with the details of their uniqueness and handling techniques. As noted already, the text classifies these war implements into four groups:

• 12 Muktāyudhas (Released) including Dhanus and Iṣu (bow and arrow);
• 20 Amuktāyudhas (Not-Released) including Vajra (thunder-bolt);
• 1 Khaḍga, ‘the weapon of weapons’, falls under the above category but is described separately in the text.
• 93 Muktāmuktāyudhas (Released and/or Not-Released) which comprise all missiles like Nāgāstra and Garuḍāstra;
• 6 Mantramukta (Released with specific mantras) which include Pāśupatāstra.

This chapter is divided into two sections which delve deep into different categories of weapons:

Section 1–Śastras (Mukta & Amukta Weapons)

Of the weapons described in the text, the Mukta and Amukta together amount to 32. The Mukta weapons like bow and arrow and Cakra are primarily for attacking targets at a distance. Whereas, the Amukta weapons like Vajra and Paraśu are meant for closer combat. According to mythological allusions in the text, all these 32 weapons have emerged from the body of sage Dadhīci. But Khaḍga is treated separately as it was specially created by Brahmā. Nītiprakāśikā speaks in detail of the various possible movements and usages of the bow and arrow and sword and provides brief description of the handling techniques of other śastras. A majority of the war implements of these two types have been in use for centuries together with gradual changes in form or use. Some of them seem to have been replaced or lost due to certain technological advances or set-backs.

Section 2–Astras (Muktāmukta & Mantramukta Weapons)

Nītiprakāśikā enlists 93 weapons in the Muktāmukta class. This list is almost similar to the enumeration of missiles provided by the Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa. In the Bālakāṇḍa of Rāmāyaṇa, sage Viśvāmitra is described as teaching astraprayoga to Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa.

In the Nītiprakāśikā, these missiles are classified into—(i) Sopasaṃhāra type, that which could be withdrawn upon discharge and (ii) Upasaṃhāra type of weapons which are the restrainers. Well-known specimens of Sopasaṃhāra type are Garuḍāstra and Nāgāstra and of the Upasaṃhāra class are Jṛmbhaka and Mohana.

The Mantramukta class of weapons number 6, namely Viṣṇucakra, Vajrāstra, Brahmāstra, Kālapāśa, Nārāyaṇāstra and Pāśupatāstra. Each of these is attributed to a powerful god and thus considered supreme. The significance of these missiles is better understood by observing their prayoga and effects in the epic wars. All of the above two classes of missiles are mentioned in the Nītiprakāśikā without any figurative descriptions.

This chapter aims at collating information and evidences on śastras from various literary and sculptural sources to present a larger picture of weapons, their illustration and their utility in actual wars.

Chapter IV: War Strategy

Strategy coupled with valour fetches victory for a king. This ensures that an enemy is brought to the battle-front and is defeated. In short, strategy is about the ‘when’ and ‘how’ of waging wars. Generally, the ambassadors, along with spies play a vital role in having proper checks for enemies, internal and external to the country. The role of spies and the espionage system in toto assume great importance especially during an approaching war.

These strategies can be grouped as those to be adopted during peace times, pre-war times and war times.

Peace-time Strategy:

To ensure the safety of a nation, various policies have been developed and enforced by nīti exponents. An important policy in this regard is the Ṣāḍguṇya or the six-fold policy which comprises of sandhi (peace), vigraha (war), yāna (preparedness), āsana (maintaining post against enemy), saṃśraya (friendship) and dvaidhībhāva (double-dealing) . Another policy, the four-fold upāya–sāma (conciliation), dāna (gift), bheda (dissension) and daṇḍa (coercion)–is also widely referred to. Nītiprakāśikā also elucidates on foreign policies and war-specific tactics.

Pre-war Strategy:

Guidelines on how to choose a battle-site, instructions for the king as to when he has to start marching towards an enemy, how to lead troops during such marches and the manner in which a marching army should get cover are discussed under this section. War camps, construction of shelters in such camps, the security checks and pass-codes for security purposes, instant punishments for miscreants, training and routine drill for the soldiers are all recorded as pre-war strategies. The practices relating to camps and military exercises are continued during warring times also.

War time Strategy:

Here, actual fighting modes adopted in the battle-field are analysed. Troops are arranged into formations or arrays (vyūhas) in the war-field to attack the enemy or to protect oneself. Nītiprakāśikā speaks of four different classes of such battle-formations, their constituent parts, sub-varieties and the actual distribution of the different army divisions in the vyūhaṅgas. The text also states ways and means to handle difficult situations arising during war and suggests techniques to avoid defeat.

Chapter V: War Administration

The four-fold division of the army is actually about one entity–the warrior, who dons different roles–on horse-back or elephant-back or on the chariot or on foot. Without him, the weapons and war-animals or vehicles serve no purpose. In other words, human resource management plays a pivotal role in war. Able and level-headed administrative structure will ensure that the soldiers discharge their duties in high spirits.

Nītiprakāśikā provides a lot of instructions in this direction. It enforces the need for having a fair and just war. It enlists the ethical war-practices and these are in tandem with other nīti texts. Time-table for a king, his previleges and duties are discussed at length. Infallible definitions and precise directions concerning appointment of officials are specified. There is also a clear demarcation regarding the functional hierarchy of army administrators. The basic units of the army, their size and constitution are also delineated upon. It begins with the humble Patti and culminates in the huge Akṣauhiṇī.

In addition to these, several economic and financial aspects of war are elaborated. Issues pertaining to emoluments of warriors, awards and rewards for exemplary deeds of soldiers, allowances and pension benefits for the warrior and in case of war casualities, welfare schemes for his family are also dealt with. When the enemy’s country is looted, there are directions as to how the king should divide the booty among his men. Apart from these, a range of crimes relating to war and the appropriate punishments are prescribed. This forms a crucial part of war administration, as often internal enemies pose the greatest threat to one’s country.

Chapter VI: Conclusion

Weighing the text Nītiprakāśika along with its commentary Tattvavivṛti with varied texts on nīti, leads to the conclusion that the text encompasses the full realm of the science of war dealing with men, machine and machinations. To encapsulate, the text deals with army organization with its gradations and constitution; divine and non-divine weapons with their attributes and applicability and the manner and planning of the conduct of wars. It teaches the warrior to widen his outlook, prune his capabilities and face the ever-changing situations in the battle-field to become victorious by bravado and skill.

The author has used a language devoid of ornate poetic words suitable for describing the science of war. He follows the style of narrative technique normally found in Purāṇas. The commentator explains almost all technicalities with detailed notes which prove the utility of his commentary in upholding the standard of the text.

Further research could be done in the direction of analysing the present and ancient military systems.