7. Materials discussed in the Angavijja and Amarakosha

Two important compilations made during the Gupta era provide a wealth of information regarding the material culture of the period in India; we would extract from them certain references to minerals and metals. Angavijja is a text of the Jains written in Prakrt by Pubbayariya (Munipunyavijaya, 1957). This text dealing mainly with the science of prognostication contains useful references to the then uses of minerals and metals. VIII-1 The compilation was made during the beginning of the Gupta era (4 th century A.D.) when the Kushan and Kshatrapa influences were still perceptible in the western India. The text mentions jonika or javanika, a Greek woman and several kinds of coins bearing foreign influences. Masaka, Karsapana, Nanaka were ancient traditional coins of India. Khattapaka was however the ksatrapa coin of Rudradaman (150 A.D.) also known as rudradamaka. Sateraka was the Greek gold coin 'stater' weighing 133.2 grams. Dinara was the Gupta age gold coin, but the name was derived from the pre-Christian era Roman silver coin denarius. Nanaka was low denomination copper coin. The Ksatrapas used lead also for such low-value coins. two prevalent Angavijja provided a fairly long list of professions. smith), There were suvarnakaras (gold smiths), Kamsakara (bronze lonakara Kottaka (dealer in salt), manikara (lapidary, dealer in gems), (inlayers) etc. Dhatus were classified in Anjavijja into categories: manidhatu (gems) and loha (metals). Probably Yavanajataka's notion of dhamya, something which is bright, was applied to the word dha tu, excluding those which are adhamya or dull.

VIII-18 The metals used were gold, silver, copper, lead, trapu or tin, harakuda or brass, Kala loha (pig iron), kansa loha (bronze), bahu loha (many metal alloy) etc. Also mentioned were tikkhaloha (cast iron) and mundaloha (wrought iron). A special remark may be made of harakuda or arakuta of Kautiliya Arthasastra or brass. It was compared in colour with gold: tattha patikesu sunatakam harakudakam caiva viveyam pamcavarensa sovataresu ya pina usu harakadakam vijneyam (Angavijja, 1957:233) The bright yellow colour of brass was considered to qualify it as a suitable replacement for gold as suggested by Nagarjuna. Lohitaksa (carnelian), masarakalla or marakata (emerald), Veruliya or vaidurya (beryl), gomeda (zircon), phaliva or sphatika (quartz) were adored as gems. Kharamani was a general name modified according to colour: raktakhara (garnet), svetakhara or vimalaka (pyrite?), nilakhara (sapphire), kalakhara (galena?) etc. The gems like coral, pearl, chank- or conch-shell, ivory etc. were separately categorised as pranayonicata or those having biological origin. The metals were beaten, kharamanis scalloped, coral and chank were rubbed (ghattha) and the pearls smoothened (parimaddita) The eyes were decorated with collyrium (anjana), the brows with the lampblack, the temple with cinnabar (hingula), orpiment (haritala), realgar (manahsila), and the lips with lac-dye (red (alaktaka). For other decorative purposes were used gerua l x Ochre), (blue palepaka (plaster), nilakadhatu (ultramarine?), sassekechunna A

VIII-19 vitriol, copper sulphate or malachite / azurite powder?). Namalinganusasanam by Amarasimha (450 A.D.) popularly known as Amarakosa is one of the most celebrated lexicons in the Sanskrit language. The author was a Buddhist Scholar with a strong leaning towards Sankhya philosophy. He compiled a large number of technical words related to minerals and metals. Many of these are from the Vedic sources, Panini and Kautilya, which we have already mentioned. We would mention here only some of the additions made around fourth century A.D. Like Angavijia, Amarakosa contained a list of different kinds of salts such as sauvarcala (saltpetre), saindhava (rock salt) Yavaksara (potassium carbonate in plant ash) etc. Saltpetre, also known as naipali (from Nepal) was probably used in rocket or fireworks, mentioned as Yogavartika by Dandi (6 th Century A.D.) in his Dasakumaracarita. blue Some of the other inorganic materials used for decorative purpose were: tutthanjana mayuraka aksha (blue vitriol or copper sulphate), sindura or nagasambhava (red lead), Kulali (collyrium) etc.Amarakosa provided three names for alum: Kamkshi saurashtraja. For minerals and gems, alternative, names for pearl, tuvari and were mentioned: subhra/abhra for mica, phala mukta kulisa/vaira for diamond. referred to. Both marakata (emerald) and vaidurya (beryl) were Some of the new names for metals and alloys are found base metal, asmasara - iron, kushi in the Amarakosa: kupyam wrought iron, parada/capala mercury, sthuna - iron statue, vanga tin. It may be noted that the famous sthuna or iron pillar ADelhi of

VIII-20 was made in the Gupta era. Tin had a new name vanga (Bengal); it is significant that tin-based bronzes were being made in the Bengal area (Nalanda etc.) using Hazaribagh tin ore or the metal imported from Malaysia. Arakuta continued to stand for brass. Riti meant brass as well as rust or calx of brass. Carakasamhita had used the same word riti and recommended its medicinal use. Riti puspam meant flower-like substance from heated brass. Amarakosa referred to an iron smith not only as lohakara but also as vyok ara. Kalada was a silver smith, saulvika a coppersmith, and kambavika a shell-worker.