3. The Mahabharata—500-100 B.C. Additions

The first major portion of additions and accretions came during the Historical Period. The large number of gems, ornaments,

VI-6 The iron weapons, and metal utensils mentioned in the Mahabharata have their exact counterparts in the Buddhist Pali literature. materials were either processed in North India or brought from South India or across the Western frontiers under the influence of the Persians and Greeks, and later Scythians and Romans. References to valdirya or beryl (1.143.23 2.48.30 3.39.17; 4.36.39 etc.) clearly show that this part of Mahabharata was composed after 5 th century B.C. The Vedic literatures do not mention beryl, and the first time this is introduced in the Sanskrit literature is by Panini. The epic Mahabharata itself refers to the South Indian topography which yielded beryl and other gems during the Historical Period: pranayata maharaja bada़ेte ratna parvatah avagadha hi abhayatah samudrau purvapascimau nilascam vaidudyamaya khetasca rajataprabhah sarvadhatuvindrasca srrmgavannama parvatah (6.7.2-3) Mount Nila (Nilagiri) probably derived its name from the sea-blue aquamarine in the Coimbatore district. The ocean and Sri Lanka have been mentioned as the chief sources of gems such as beryl, pearl and coral etc: samudrasaram vaidurya muktah samkhan tathaiva ca satasasya ku stamntra simhala samupaharan (2.48.30)

VI-7 The international trading port Barygaza in Gujarat or modern Broach was known as Bhrigukaccha or Bharukaccha. acknowledged: Its importance was bharukaccham gato dhiman dutan madravatisutah Mention was made of (2.28.50) marukacchanivasinah (2.47.8) Green beryl (Vaidurya) has been clearly distinguished from sea-blue aquanarine (nila vai durya) : vaidurya haritaniva (5.98.10) nadisca bahulavata nila vaidarya sanima (3-39.17) nila vaidurya sadrsa indanilanibhah kvacit kvacita (12.326.5). Further distinction has been made from nilanjana (12.326.3) or carro 111 te and (12.326.5) or sapphire. indranila Emerald is the deep green variety of beryl. This gem was not available in the South, and it is doubtful whether the Udaipur, Rajasthan reserve was tapped that early. Most probably the supply of emerald came from the Asiatic side of the Ural mountains, 80 Km. east of Sverdlosk, or from Ethiopia or EgyptAt any rate, according at one stage to Pliny and the Periplus, Rome received emerald through India alone; this trade was possible only during the Christian era. The Mahabhara refers to emerald, marakata or masara in several places: pittan bharakata gatha (3.213.13) masaragalvarkamayaih vibhamgara bhusitam hemapinadra cakram (12.46.33)

VI-8 Amongst the beryl-like green gems, the light green beryl was the most popular one in ancient India. The Mahabharata provides evidences as to how popular beryl had become to the Indians. The sparkling green of flowers (2.155.61), petals (12.95.15), fresh moss (1.143.23), young shoots of grass (5.118.8) etc. were compared with the beautiful green vaidurya: (1.143.23) nadi dvipa pradesesu vairdsa sikatasu ca vaidyamkura kalpani mrduni haritani ca vaiduryapatra vitatam maninalamaya ambujam (2.3.27) (5.118.8) The earliest archaeologically recovered sample of beryl was from Bhir Mound III of Taxila (5 th-4 th century B.C.). Beryl beads were also obtained from Kaushambi (150 B.C.) and Sirkap III (100 A.D.). Vidruma or pravala (coral) mentioned in the Mahabharata (1.105.17, 3.212.13-14, 7.73.25, 12.326.3-5) also came from Sri Lanka and the Malabar coast and later from the Mediterranean Sea.. Of course coral was known in the Chalcolithic India, and archaeolo- -gical samples have been obtained in the successive periods of Prakash (Period I 1700-1300 B.C., II 600-100 B.C., III 100-300 A.D. Navdatoli (Period I 1600-1300 B.C., III 100-300 A.D.), Maski (Period I 900-400 B.C., III 50-300 A.D.). The most substantial finds however are from the Indo-Greek (Bhir Mound II Mauryan) and Indo Roman Trading Period (Nevasa V 50 B.C. 200 A.D.). Roman corals along with many other materials were imported and found in Nevasa V. Medicinal value of coral was testified by Caraka and Susruta around the first century A.D. -

VI-9 Pearls, mukta or mauttika (Pali) also came from Sri Lanka (2.48.30) and Gulf of Mannar. In the Vedic literatures, pearl was conch-pearl or known as Krsan. This was probably the darker variety from the Persian Gulf or the black mis-shapen pearls from the winnow oysters of the Saurashtra backwaters (Lad, 1983: 30). During the historical period, the much better species of oysters (Pinetada Vulgaris), flourishing in the Gulf of Mannar and noted for its beautiful silvery white colour, were exploited for the pearl trade. are many references to pearls in the Mahabharata (1.191.13; 7.73.25, 9.34.31; 9.61.32; 11.165.17 etc.), Pearl necklaces were quite commo (3.108.9; 3.146.25). A delicate network of pearls known as muktajala used to be hung from doorways (13.20.36-37) and pillars in an auditorium etc: There muktajale pariksiptam vaiduryamani bhusitam satakumbhamayam divyam preksagaram upagamat (1.124.13) Such lavish use of pearls was possible only during the Mauryan and Post-Mauryan era. The use of bangles made out of conch-shell or kambu was rooted in the Harappan and the Post Harappan chalcolithic traditions. However, at the time when the epic was written, shell bangles were used by lower class people only (2.54.13, 4.10.15-19, 4.15.2). Evidently, the newer commodi ti < such as the fragrant candana, agaru and sandalwood from the South, were more attractive. Diamond or vajra was very popular for its brightness vajrasarojjvalani (5.98.10), but we do not know hoe mein

VImuch earlier before the first century A. D. (when Panna mine was exploited), the actual diamond mining had started in India. Sapphire (blue) indranila 12.326.5) was obtained from the gem-beds of Sri Lanka which contained more sapphire-blue variety of corundum, and less of ruby red variety of the same mineral. Sunstone (survakanta or arka) and moonstone (candrakanta) both belong to the feldspar family. In the sunstone structure, embedded hematite or goethite crystals scatter an internal glow of yellowish or reddish beams, and thus the mineral exhibits self- -luminescence. The reference 12.46.33 quoted earlier, describes the chariot of the Lord Krishna bedecked with gold, emerald and arka or sunstone. Was Krishna's Syamantaka a piece of sunstone or diamond? The moonstone is an intimate combination of orthoclase and albite in an arrangement of thin layers to which it owes its beautiful blue bloom and its lovely sheen. This mineral has been available in the Kangayam district of Tamilnadu in South India and also in the famous gem-gravels around Ratnapura in the south-western Sri Lanka. Quartz or rock crystal has been mentioned several times as sphatika in the Mahabharata (2.3.16 and 27; 3.212.13-14; 12.326.3-5 etc.). Due to its resemblence with glass, which was used to imitate gems, it came to be known as Kacamani, and gradually got devalued as a common place material. The epic mentions few other minerals such as ni lanjana (12.326.3) which is probably the blue pigment carrollite, asmasara (2.47.14) (was it iron or agate or amethyst?) which was used to make bhanda or containers.