5. Gem Minerals mentioned in the Arthashastra

Mani-dhatu or the gem minerals were characterised in the Arthasastra as 'clear, smooth, lustrous, processed of sound, cold, hard and of a light colour' (2.12.17). An excellent gem was supposed to have some specific shape-hexagonal, square or round a flashing -

V-7 colour, a suitable form, and to be clear, smooth, heavy, lustrous, with lustre inside and imparting lustre (2.11.33). With a dull colour and lustre, with grains, with a hole in the bloom, broken, badly bored, and covered with scratches these were considered to be the blemishes of gems (2.11.34). Pearls or mukta originated in the oyster-shells and conchshells, and were available in the Tamrapazni (Tinnevelly or Tuticorin), Pandyaka-vata (the Pandya kingdom) etc. (2.11.2-3). Excellent pearl gems had to be big, round, without a flat surface, lustrous, white, heavy, smooth and perforated at the proper place. The defective ones were lentil-shaped, triangular, tortoise-shaped, semi-spherical, with a layer, coupled, cut up, rough, spotted, gourd-shaped, dark, blue and badly perforated (2.11.4-5). A large variety of pearl-strings to be used for the head, hands, feet and waist were described (2.11.6-27): strsaka (for the head, with one pearl in the centre, the rest small and uniform in size), avaghataka (a big pearl in the centre with pearls gradually decreasing in size on both sides), indracchanda (necklace of 1008 pearls), manavaka (20 pearl string). gatnavati (variegated with gold and gems), apavartaka (with gold, gems and pearls at intervals) etc. Ivory was known as danta (3.17.8). Good privala or corals (colour of the red lotus) came from Alakandatam (Alasandrakan in another manuscript; this is most K

V-8 Alexandria possibly Ale of Egypt) and Vivarna (African coast of the Red Sea and Sicily, Sardinia). The specimens eaten by insects and bulging in the middle were not accepted (2.11.42). It may be noted that red coral (corallium rubrum, family Gorgonidae) of the Mediterranean was as popular to the Indians as white pearl at bo Roma (Pliny, 32.11). Before the Indo-Roman trade goopbanes began, India was probably receiving this material through the Arab and Persian traders. Diamond (vaira) was discovered in India of the pre-Christian aze. The Arthasastra mentioned several sites of origin in Sabharastra (Vajragrha or Wai ragadh in Vidarbha), Tajjamarastra (Orissa), Kastira (Katni?) and observed that this precious gem could come from the mines, streams or placer deposits (2.11.37-38). Sometimes confused with cat's eye, quartz or some other gem (2.11.39) a good sample of diamond had to be: sthulam guru praharasaha sagale bhajanalekhi narkubhrami bhrajisnu ca prasastam 'big, heavy, capable of bearing blows i.e. hard, with symmetrical points, (capable of) scratching a vessel i.e. abrasive, revolving like a spindle (scattering incident, light) and brilliantly shining' (2.11.40). Such is an excellent (prasasta) sample of diamond; that with points lost, without edges and defective on one side is bad (2.11.41). The author of the Arthasastra did not possess our presentday knowledge of elements and their compounds, and thus could not

V-9 His Such a present any sophisticated classification of gem-minerals. classification was naturally based upon colour and lustre. classification, made in the ancient world, inevitably resulted in considerable confusion since radically different kinds of gems sometimes possess similar colour, and very small quantities of impurities often alter the colour of the gem radically. Thus, the correlations between the ancient and modern nomenclature of gemminerals are at best tentative. Archaeologically derived samples may however be subjected to modern instrumental tests for confirmation. The Arthasastra described certain types or generic names of minerals (2.11.29-32): red saugandhika, green vaidurya, blue indranila and colourless Sphatika. Although red saugandhika (2.11.29) was considered to be a basic variety of gems (Br. Sam. 82.1) in the early centuries, later it was included under the category of ruby, which is padmaraca (colour of red lotus) or manikya anasollasa, 2.475-6). Ruby is the clear red variety of Kuruvinda (2.14.48) or corundum (A 1203) containing chromium and a little iron; this is known in India as paimaraga, manikya or cuni. Balas-ruby is rose- -red and was known as palasurvaka (like the morning sun). This spinel probably came from Badakshan. Rubicalle, which is yellow,

V-10 was known as Karundaka. Deep red spinel or spinel ruby MgA 1204, identified with saucandhika, actually belongs to a different (spinel) family of minerals. Many other classes of gems could have red colour. The green beryl or vai durya (2.11.30) has been earlier mentioned by Papini in his Astadhvayi (vide previous chapter). The accounts of the Greek and Roman travellers, as well as the numerous references in the Indian epics, describe in clowing tems the Indian abiding fascination for vai durva, whose colour has been aptly compared with sea water, green bamboo and parrot's wing 34 ho vamsaragah sukapatravarnah (arthasastra 2.11.30) . uda ‌kavane Beryl is beryllium aluminium silicate with some substitution of beryllium atoms by Na, Li or Cs. Some substitution by chromium makes it bright green emerald, which has been known in India as marakata or panna (not mentioned in the Arthasastra). Panna, the famous Indian site of diamond in the Madhya Pradesh, might have yielded some emerald (panna) in the past. The bluish green variety of beryl is known as aquamarine or paribhadra, and was mentioned in the Arthasastra as upt palavarnah (like blue lotus). The yellow variety pusyaraga (yellow like turmeric) (2.11.30) could correspond either to golden beryl (heliodor) or to pusparaga, an altogether different kind of mineral via, topaz, wich is aluminium fluorosilicate. Gomedaka (2.11.30) was probably brown zircon or garnet. Another variety, chrysoberyl (Behl 24) is pale greenish yellow and

V-11 looks like cat's eye or marjaraksaka which is mentioned in the Arthasastra under a different context related to diamonds (2.11.39). The section 2.11.31 describes mahanila (deep blue) indranila (sappphire, which is corundum or Al 2 O 3 containing Ti, Fe and Co as impurities), a variation being asteriated or star, sapphire entiled sravanmadhya, bluish gem 'having rays shooting like flowing water'.. Later mahanila was distinguished from indranila in the text Agastimate, as the deep blue variety from Sri Lanka in which 'the colours of the rainbow sparkle'. Jimutaprabha is proably cloudstone or faint bluish marble. Moonstone or candrakanta, an intergrowth of orthoclase and albite, with pearly opalescent reflection, blue bloom and lovely sheen (available in Sri Lanka), was probably meant in the Arthas stra's nandaka (2.11.31) and sitavrsti (2.11.32). Suryakanta, classified with sphatika or quartz (2.11.32), is clearly sunstone, which is sodium-calcium feldspar with strong optical interference, reflectivi and play of colour. Was Lord Krishna's famous Syamantaka a sample of suryakanta or vajra (diamond)? The Arthasastra also mentioned several subsidiary types of gems named after colour, lustre or place of origin (2.11.35) vimalaka, white-red, jyotirasaka, white-red (could be agate and carnelian; vimalaka could also be shining pyrite), lohitakaa, black in the centre and red at the fringe (magnetite,

V-12 and hematite on the fringe?), sasyaka blue copper sulphate, ahi cchatraka from Ahicchatra, sukti curnaka, powdered or small Oyster, Ksiravaka, milk coloured gem or lasuna and sukla pulaka (with horripilation or chatoyancy) which could be cat's eye variety of chrysoberyl, and so on. At the end was mentioned Kacamani, the amorphous gems or artificial gems imitated by colouring glass (2.11.36). The technique of maniraga or imparting of colour to produce artificial gems was specifically mentioned (1.18.8; 2.12.1). The Indians were experts in producing artificial gems like beryl, ruby, sapphire etc., and this has been attested by the Greek and Roman travellers and recorded in Sanskrit literature like the famous play Mrcchakatika.