10. Concluding Remarks and References

The Vedic literature primarily deals with philosophy and ritual practices. To some extent it touches upon logic, astronomy and geometry. In the area of materials however, the literature is casually involved. The references to conch-shell and pearl in the Atharva Veda show that the maritime trade of the Harappan and Rgvedic periods continued to some extent. The trade gradually dwindled after the collapse of the Harappan civilization and migration of the Rgvedic people away from the valley of the Saravati towards the eastern territories. Consequently, the material wealth in the archaeological sites on the Ganga and Yamuna during the pre-historic period did not match with the splendour we find on the valley of the Sarasvati.

III-19 It is quite understandable therefore, that the collection of minerals and gems in Hastinapura and Atranjikhera (early periods) could not match with those of Harappa, Kalibangan or later-day Taxila. What is surprising however, is that the Vedic literature does not record some of the genuine material achievements made during its era, such as the discovery of iron, the impressive repertoire of iron implements at Atranjikhera, Hastinapura and Kaushambi, the technology of glass and pottery such as PGW and NBPW. etc. The Rgvedic bard had a scientific temperament. In the Nasadiva Sukta (Rigveda 10.129), the poet asked questions about the creation and the mysteries of nature. It appears as if in the later period, the Vedic bards lost this scientific spirit, at least in the realm of physical nature. They were infected with the vice of casteist and hierarchical feelings. At a time when the potters had developed beautiful PGN and NBPW potteries, the Maitrayani Samhita, the Bharadvaja Srautasut (6.8.14) etc. prescribed that the ritual milking pot should be prepared by one belonging to any of the first three social orders, and not by a potter! Even metals like gold, copper and newly discovered iron were considered to possess decreasing social 1 status. Shatapatha Brahama 13.2.2.16-19 describes the asvamedha sacrifice in which a golden knife had to be used for the first order animal namely the sacrificial horse (both representing nobility), copper knife for the paryanaya or the associate animal, and the syamayas or iron knife for the inferior animal ('both representing infantry

III-20 That iron was considered to be inferior than gold and silver becomes evident in Shatapatha Brahama 13.3.4.5: 'the third (in order) oblation is offered to the people in an iron bowl, for the people are of iron', (that means people are inferior to the king, nobles and the brahmanas). The lower status of potters and ironsmiths in the society reflected a negative attitude towards science and technology, for which India had to pay a heavy price later. As India entered the Historical Period and developed the mahajanapadas, it developed contacts with the Persians, Greeks, and the southern territories of the sub-continent. A new awareness developed in the realms of the material resources, and this was highlighted in the writings of Panini and Kautilya, to be discussed in the chapters to follow.

Abbreviation Symbols for the Vedic Texts Atharvaveda B.Up. Rigveda Ai.Bra Ka.s.s. Atharva Veda Brhadaranyaka Upanisad RG Veda Aitareya Brahmana Katyayana Srauta Sutra Ka.Sam. Kathaka Samhi ta K.YV. Krishna Yajurveda Kau.Bra Kausitaki Brahmana Kau.S. Kausika Sutra Cha.Up. Chandogya Upanisad Jai.Bra Jaiminiya Brahmana Jai.Bra.Up. Jaiminiya Brahmana Upanisad Tai.A Tai.Bra Tai.Sam. Nir. Pam. Vi.Bra Taittiriya Aranyaka Taittiriya Brahmana Taittiriya Samhi ta (Same as K.YV.) Ni ruk ta Pancha Vimsa Brahmana or Tandya Brahmana Brihadaranyaka Upanisad 3.Up. Mai.UP Maitrayani Upanisad Mai.Sam. Maitrayani Samhi ta Va.Sam Vajasaneyi Samhita S.Bra Satapatha Brahmana. San.A Sankhyayana Aranyaka III-2

San.Sr. S.YV. S.YV. S.Vi. Bra Sankhyayana Srautasutra Sukla Yajurveda Sada Vimsa Brahmana III-22

REFERENCES III-23 Agrawala, V.S., 1953, India as known to Panini, University of Lucknow. Apte, V.S., 1890, 1985, The Practical Sanskrit English Dictionary, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. Chakrabarti, D.K., 1979, The Problem of Tin in Early India Preliminary Survey, in Man and Environment, Volume 3, 1979, pp. 61-74. Dandekar, R.N., 1973, Vedic Bibliography, 4 volumes, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune. Dyson, R.H.Jr., 1982, Paradigm Changes in the Study of the Indus Civilization, in Harappan Civilization, edited by G.L. Possehl, Oxford and IBH, 1982, pp. 422-423. Gangadharan, N., 1983, Indian Metallurgy since the Vedic Period, in Indian Science through the Ages, Vivekananda Kendra Patrika, Volume 12, Number 1, February 1983, Part I, pp. 137-143. Joshi, J.P., 1987, The Mahabharata and Indian Archaeology, in Archaeology and History, edited by B.M. Pande and B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1987, Volume 1, pp. 19-34. Kashikar, C. G., 1969, Pottery in the Vedic Literature, Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol.4, no.1 and 2, 1969, pp. 15-26.

III-24 Macdonell, A. A. and Keith, A. B., 1912, 1958, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, Delhi Edition. Monnier-Williams, M., 1899, 1986, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. Pal, Y., Sahai, B., Sood, R.K. and Agrawal, D. P., 1980, Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth Planetary Science, 89 (3) 1980, pp. 317-331. Raikes, R.L., 1968, Antiquity, 42 (168), 1968, pp.286-291. Rajaguru, S.N., 1977, Discussion in Ecology and Archaeology of Western India, Concept Publishing Company, Delhi, 1977, pp. 69-72. Shaffer, J.G., 1984, The Indo-Aryan Invasions: Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality, in The People of South Asia, edited by J. R. Lukacs, Plenum Press, New York, Chapter 4, pp.77-90. Srivastava, B., 1968, Trade and Commerce in Ancient India, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Varansi. Suryakant, 1963, Vaidik Kosh, Banaras Hindu University. Thapar, Romila, 1987, Archaeological Artifacts and Literary Data, in Archaeology and History, edited by B.M. Pande and B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Acam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1987, pp. 411-415.