Minerals and Metals in Sanskrit literature

by Sulekha Biswas | 1990 | 69,848 words

Hinduism Ayurveda Rasashastra India history

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Summary: This essay studies the presence of Minerals and Metals in Sanskrit literature over three millennia, from the Rigveda to Rasaratna-Samuccaya. It establishes that ancient Indians were knowledgeable about various minerals and metallurgy prior to the Harappan era, with literary references starting in the Rgveda. The thesis further examines the evolution of metallurgical terms, the political economy of the Mauryan period, and discusses the epic Mahabharata, Ratna-shastra, and Rasasastra. The findings highlight connections between literary and archaeological evidence while addressing philosophical concepts related to minerals and metals.

Source 1: exoticindiaart.com
Source 2: shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in

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The full text of the Minerals and Metals in Sanskrit literature in English is available here and publically accesible (free to read online). Of course, I would always recommend buying the book so you get the latest edition. You can see all this book’s content by visiting the pages in the below index:

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Acknowledgement

Introduction to Minerals and Metals in Sanskrit literatures

+ Chapter 2 - Minerals and Metals in the Rigveda

. 1. Introduction to the Rigveda

. 2. Transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic Age

. 3. Fire in Metallurgy

. 4. The Meaning of Ayas

. 5. Some Metallic Objects

. 6. Ornaments and Gems in the Rigveda

. 7. Concluding Remarks and References

+ Chapter 3 - Minerals and Metals in the Vedic literature after Rigveda

. 1. Introduction to Vedic literature after Rigveda

. 2. Minerals and Metals

. 3. Different Kinds of Ayas

. 4. On Trapu or Tin

. 6. Ornamental and Barter Metals

. 7. Iron Implements

. 8. Potteries and other Inorganic Materials

. 9. Mani in the Vedic Literature

. 10. Concluding Remarks and References

+ Chapter 4 - Materials and Concepts in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi

. 1. Introduction to Panini’s Ashtadhyayi

. 2. Mine and Mineral Engineering

. 3. Extractive Metallurgy

. 4. Minerals and Metals (in the Ashtadhyayi)

. 5. Gold and Coins (in the Ashtadhyayi)

. 6. Shatamana to Karshapana

. 7. Concept of Unit Operations

. 8. Technical Concepts in Ashtadhyavi

. 9. References

+ Chapter 5 - Minerals and Metals in Kautiliya Arthashastra

. 1. Introduction to Kautiliya Arthashastra

. 2. Mines and Metals in the Society

. 3. Indian Topography of the Mineral Resources

. 4. The Director of Mines and his Duties

. 5. Gem Minerals mentioned in the Arthashastra

. 6. Non-gem Minerals and Materials mentioned in the Arthashastra

. 7. Metallic Ores mentioned in the Arthashastra

. 8. Precious Metals: Gold, Silver and their Alloys

. 9. The process of Minting Coins

. 10. The Lohadhyaksha (the Director of Metals)

. 11. On Vaikrintaka, Vritta and Tikshna

. 12. Iron and Steel Armoury

. 13. Tula mana desa kala Pautavam

. 14. Concluding Remarks and References

+ Chapter 6 - Minerals and Metals in the Indian Epics

. 1. The Background of the Mahabharata Epic Story

. 2. The Mahabharata in the Light of the Archaeological Evidences

. 3. The Mahabharata—500-100 B.C. Additions

. 4. Metals in the Mahabharata

. 5. The Mahabharata—Post-Christian Era Additions

. 6. Background of the Ramayana

. 7. The Buddhist Literature Sources (regarding the two epics)

. 8. References

+ Chapter 7 - A millennium of Ratnashastra (gemmology) literature in India

. 1. Introduction to Ratna-shastra (gemmology) literature

. 2. Categorisation of Gems (Ratna)

. 3. The Scope of Ratna-shastra (Gemmology)

. 4.1. Description of Diamonds (Vajra)

. 4.2. Description of Corundum, Ruby and Sapphire

. 4.3. Gem Minerals Containing Beryllium

. 4.4. Description of Vaidurya and Marakata

. 4.5. Description of Topaz (Pushparaga)

. 4.6. Description of Zircon, Garnet and Tourmaline

. 4.7. Description of Quartz

. 4.8. Chalcedony Group of Gems

. 4.9. Description of Jade

. 4.10. Feldspar Group of Gems

. 4.11. Two Softer Blue Gems of the Ancient World

. 4.12. Description of Coral (Pravala or Vidruma)

. 4.13. Description of Pearl (Mukta)

. 4.14. The Oyster Pearl (Shukti-mukta)

. 5. The ancient Pearl Market in India

. 6. Origin of Pearls: The Mythological Theory

. 7. Concluding Remarks and References

+ Chapter 8 - Non-gem Minerals and Metals in Rasa-shastra

. 1. Introduction to ancient Indian alchemy and Atomism

. 2. Introduction to the Samhitas of Charaka and Sushruta

. 3. Minerals and Metals according to Yajnavalkya and Patanjali

. 4. Patanjali’s Successor: Nagarjuna (the alchemist)

. 5. Materials discussed in the Yavanajataka

. 6. Minerals and Metals in the Gupta Era Literatures

. 7. Materials discussed in the Angavijja and Amarakosha

. 8. Non-gem materials in the Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita

. 9. Introduction to the Rasa-shastra texts

. 10. Texts of the Tantric Alchemy Period (7th-13th Century A.D.)

. 11. Rasarnava—A Brahminical Tantra

. 12. Iatro-Chemical Texts

. 13. References

+ Chapter 9 - The Rasaratna-samuccaya—a pinnacle in the Indian iatro-chemistry

. 1. Technical Terms in the Rasaratna-samuccaya

. 2. Gem Minerals discussed in the Rasaratna-samuccaya

. 3. Decsription of the Eight Maharasas

. 4. Decsription of the Uparasa Materials

. 5. A Note on some Salts and Natural Products

. 6. Metals and Alloys discussed in Rasaratna-samuccaya

. 7. Rasa and Rasaka according to Rasaratna-samuccaya

. 8. Ferrous Materials discussed in Rasaratna-samuccaya

. 9. Some Tentative Interpretations (of the Rasaratna-samuccaya)

. 10. References

+ Chapter 10 - Concluding Remarks

. 1. Archaeology and History

. 2. Scientific, Concepts Related to Material Science

. 3. Scientific Attitude in Ancient India

. 4. Concluding Remarks and References

Appendix A - Scientific information on the Minerals used

Appendix B (1) - Words related to Minerals and Metal in the Rigveda

Appendix B (2) - Technical terms in the other Vedic literatures

Appendix C - Technical terms mentioned in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi

Appendix D - Technical words in Kautiliya Arthashastra

Appendix E - Technical words in the post-Christian era Indian literature

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Last Updated: 16 November, 2024

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