Part 9.7 - Details regarding Gopura (Gateways)

[Full title: The arrangement of doors (dvāra-vidhāna) (7) Details regarding Gateways (gopura)]

Now here we present several storeyed gateways with their specific features:

In ancient Indian vāstuśāstra, gopura refers to a monumental entrance tower, usually found at the entrance of Hindu temples or palaces or houses. Gopuras are usually large and imposing structures, often seen at the entrances of Hindu temple but these are not limited to temple entrances; they can also be found at the entrances of several palaces, houses, forts, towns etc. Amarakoṣa mentions the term Gopura. 

It is stated that—

‘puradvārastu gopuraṃ’ (Amarakoṣa 2.2.45). 

It means-city gate or entrance of the city is called gopura. It is also mentioned that—

‘dvāramra tu gopuraṃ’ (Amarakoṣa, 3.3.182). 

According to P.K. Acharya gopura means—

“A gate-house, Doors in general, the colossal buildings over or near the gate giving entrance to a city, temple, monastery etc.”^[1]

It is also mentioned that—

‘dvāramra tu gopuraṃ’ (Amarakoṣa, 3.3.182). 

Vācaspatya records that:

‘agragamane ka gavāṃ puraṃ, gavā jalena pūryyate pṛṛ-vañarthe ka vā, puradvāre sreṣṭhadvāre amaraḥ’ (Vācaspatya, vol.4. p-2712). 

The word gopura is mentioned in several texts of Sanskrit literature.

The Agnipurāṇa noted that-prāsādāt pādahīnaṃ tu gopurasyochchhrāyo bhavet | (Agnipurā 42.22)

The text Kāmikāgama identifies the gopura as a part of residential house.

It is stated that–

gopurasyāpyalaṅkāraṃ śālālaṅkāravannayet |
sabhākāra śroyuktaṃ śālākāra śraḥ kriyaṃ || (Kāmikāgama 35.124)

[“The ornamental construction for the gopura should be done in the same way as done for the ornamentation of śāla type of building. It should be provided with the finial which should look like a sabhā. An alternative, the finial may be in the form of śālā.”]^[2]

The great epic Mahābhārata denotes the word gopura as gate-houses of palaces. It is stated that—

puraṃ gopurāṭṭālakopetaṃ |
mithilāṃ gopurāṭṭālakavatīṃ | (Mahābhārata,3.173.3 & 3.207.7) 

The Mānasāra also refers the term gopura as the gate house of town, temple etc. It is stated that-

caturdikṣu caturdvāraṃ gopuraiśca samavitaṃ | (Mānasāra, 10.48)

The common notice is that a gopura is associated only to the temple architecture, where as these above mentioned texts indicate that a gopura can also be a part of a palace, cities or any construction, other than temple.

Maya classifies the gateways into seven categories. There can also be divided some sub-categories on the basis of structural design and different features. They are—

Storeys	Gateways
Single storeyed	Śrikara,Śīta and Śribhadra
Two storeyed	Ratikānta,Kāntavijaya and Sumaṅgala
Three storeyed	Mardala,Mātrakhaṇḍa and Śriniketana
Four storeyed	-
Five storeyed	-
Six storeyed	-
Seven storeyed	Bhadrakalyāṇa, Subhadra and Bhadrasundara

1. Ekatalagopura (Single storeyed gateways):

There are three kinds of single-storeyed gateways prescribed for the construction of buildings viz., Śrikara, Śīta, and Śribhadra. According to the Mayamata, the following features should be maintained to construct these kinds of gateways.

1.1. Śrīkara type of single storeyed gateways:

The word śrikara derived from the root ‘kṛ’ adding the suffix ‘ac’. The vācaspatya explain the word as follows-‘śriyaṃ śobhāṃ karoti iti śrīkara.’(Vācaspatya, vol.6. p-5158). Therefore, it may be said that this kind of gateways enhances the beauty of entire construction by its holistic features. The length of the gateway should be divided into two parts. The median passage of this gateway should be the half of the length. The remaining part is to be reserved for walls. In this type of gateway, the door is to be built in the middle. The shape of this gateway should be arranged like a three-level pavilion (Trivarga-maṇḍapa). The śrikara gateways should be erected for palaces or temples. The word tṛvargamaṇḍapa indicates a pavilion consisting three levels of elevation:

Base, pillars, and entablature. It is said that–

adhiṣṭhāno paristambha prastaraṃ ca trivargakaṃ |
kapotapratisaṃyuktaṃ yat tanmṇḍapamiṣyate || (Mayamata 25.25)

[“What is called a pavilion has three levels of elevation: base, pillars and entablature, and is provided with a frieze above the cornice.”]^[3]

1.2. Śīta type of single storeyed gateways:

The length of this gateway should be divided into four parts. One of them should be used to create a wide aisle (Mahāvāra) all around the gateway, which attached with ploughshare walls (Lāṅgalākārabhitti). A stairway is to be raised above the aisle. This gateway should be oriented with a double elongated outward structure (Dustakaṃ), pediment (Mukhapattikā), etc. A median pillar and a niche (Nāsikā) should be constructed above the center of the median pillar. The exterior wall of the wide aisle should be constructed with eight niches. It is said that this kind of gateway is suitable for the construction of villages. There is a general notion that this specific type of gateway is well-suited for village construction. For example, the wide aisle of the gateway could accommodate large gatherings or markets and the ploughshare walls could provides protection boundaries.

1.3. Śribhadra type of single storeyed gateways:

The facade of this gateway should be constructed with a single elongated outward structure (Kānanakoṣṭha) that is attached with a pediment. This type of gateway is suitable for all types of building constructions.

2. Dvitalagopura (Gateways comprising two storeyed):

There are three types of two storeyed gateways discusses in the text Mayamata. They are—

1. ratikānta type,
2. kāntavijaya type and
3. sumaṅgala type.

2.1. Ratikānta type of gateways:

The width of this gateway should be divided into two parts, and the length into six parts. Maya specifies that in this gateway, the central room (nāligṛhaṃ) should be arranged with dimensions of one part in width and three parts in length. This gateway is surrounded by a wall, beyond which a one-part-wide aisle should be arranged. The exterior prolonging entablature of this gateway will be adorned with a pent-roof (gopānamañcaka). The pent-roof is an indigenous roof structure that may be shaped like a rectangle or a circle, protecting the main structure of the building from heavy rainfall or snowfall. Maya prescribes that this gateway should be constructed with socle under the base of the construction. The exterior wall of this gateway should be decorated with eight niches (nāsa), which are to be built in front and behind the aisle. This particular gateway may or may not include a frontal structure (forepart), but it notably incorporates a dextrogyre stairway (prādakṣinasopānaṃ) originating from the spacious aisle. Such gateways are believed to enhance the pleasures of all people and, are therefore called ratikānta gateways.

2.2. Kāntavijaya type of two storeyed gateways:

This is the second type of two-story gateway. The only difference from the ratikānta type is that there are four niches arranged within this gateway. It is suggested that this style of gateway enhances the beauty of the entire structure. 

Maya says that:

yat kāntavujayaṃ nāmnā sarveṣaṃ kāntivardhakaṃ | (Mayamata 30. 73 )

This is belief a common belief that the presence of four niches arranged within the gateway adds decorative and aesthetically pleasing elements to the overall design. The niches can display artwork, sculptures, or decorations and make the gateway visually appealing and impressive.

2.3. Sumaṅgala type of two storeyed gateways:

The roof of this gateway is almost flat (prahīṇaśikharākāra) and it should be decorated with hāra (hāropetaṃ). The word prahīṇa is derived from the root hā, the prefix pra and the suffix kta. The meaning of the root hā is to give up or to leave. Therefore, it may be similar to the word muṇḍākara (bald head), a type of shape of harmya. All four sides of the exterior wall of aisle should be decorated with niches. The term sumaṅgala often refers to auspiciousness, prosperity, or the attainment of good fortune. Therefore, a gateway designated as sumaṅgala signifies its role in bringing positive energy, blessings, or success to those who pass through it.

3. Tritalagopura (Construction of three storeyed gateways):

Maya classified the three storeyed gateways into three categories. They are-Mardala, Mātrakhaṇḍa and Śriniketana.

3.1. Mardala type of gateways:

The width and length of the Mardala gateway should be calculated as six parts and four parts respectively. Within this gateway, a square-shaped room with one part wide, surrounded by walls with half part wide should be arranged. This type of room must be situated on both sides of the main passage. Additionally, a one-part wide aisle, with two niches on its outer walls, should be organized on all sides of the construction. Each side room should be connected with a stairway. A gutter (vāstala) is to be constructed between the two sides of the gateway which should be equal the door in length. Maya suggests that this kind of gateway is suitable for the construction of royal palaces. Royal palaces typically require structures that are not only aesthetically pleasing but also pragmatic, strong and secure. The design of the Mardala gateway, that includes a spacious layout, multiple rooms, niches and connecting stairways, provides a suitable functionality for royal residences. The presence of a gutter between the two sides of the gateway serves the practical purposes such as drainage or defense from the enemies.

3.2. Mātrakhaṇḍa gateways:

The width of this type of gateway encompasses six parts, and for the length, it is of ten parts. A one-part wide room should be constructed on each side of the door. These rooms should all be surrounded by walls that are half a part thick. Additionally, a one-part wide aisle is to be arranged within this gateway. A gutter, with a width equal to that of the rooms, should be constructed between these two rooms. A one-part wide gallery should encircle the entire construction. The roof structure is mostly flat and must be adorned with hāra, which likely refers to a harmya (building) with a roof resembling a bald head.

The exterior wall of the aisle should be adorned with fourteen niches. Other elements such as the door, stairway, median passage, etc., should be constructed as suitable for the gateway. These are the common features of the mātrikhaṇḍa type of gateways, which, according to may brings victory to the king.

3.3. Śrīniketana gateways:

The width of this gateway should be measured at eight parts, and its length at ten parts. A two-part wide median passage is to be built, surrounded by a one-part wide wall. Additionally, a small aisle (half part wide) should be arranged within, encircled by a one-part wide gallery. Another one-part outside aisle is to be built in this construction with a one-part wide exterior wall. The gateway should be arranged with a twopart wide square outward structure (kūta), and the elongated room should measure six parts on its long side and four parts on its shorter side. A onepart wide cūlaharmya is to be placed between the kūta and the elongated room. It is also prescribed that a gutter should be built between the outward structure and the elongated part of the construction. 

Maya states that—

hārā bhāgena kartavyā cūlaharmyasamanvitā |
jalasthalaṃ tadebāhuḥ kūṭaśālāntare'pi vā || (Mayamata 30.87 )

A half-part-wide pent-roof, which extends to the entablature, is to be constructed. It should have a wide aisle decorated with eight niches on its outside wall. The shape of the roof resembles a sloping-wagon type, with the length dimension being double that of its width. It should be oriented with a two-part-wide niche in the front side and back of the construction.

Maya says that—

śikharaṃ koṣṭhakākāramāyāmārdhena vistaraṃ ||
mukhe’mukhe mahānāsi dvibhāgavistṛtānvitaṃ | (Mayamata 30.90-91)

If necessary, an entrance connected to a median pillar should be organized on each storey. This gateway should also be arranged with a socle, variously designed pillars, etc.

4. Catustalagopura (Four storeyed gateways):

The features of four-storeyed gateways are more or less similar to the five-storeyed gateways. The length and width of this gateway should be divided into two parts. There are only two wide aisles (mahāvāra). The square outward structure (kūta) and elongated aediculae (koṣṭha) should be equal to the three storeyed gateways. Additionally, three categories have been found in this kind of gateway, viz., Lalita, Kalyāna, and Komala. These all are suitable for the villages and royal palaces.

5. Pañcatalagopura (Five storeyed gateways):

The width and length of the five storeyed gateways should be the same, each consisting of fourteen parts. The central room of the construction is to be surrounded by a wall. The aisle and exterior wall should be half of the total width. The exterior aisle and its wall should occupy one part of the width. Above that aisle (aṅgana), a two-part wide square aedicula (sauṣṭhika) is to be arranged.

Maya mentions that—

aṅgaṅe sauṣṭhikadvayaṃśaṃ śālāyāṃ ṣaḍaṃśakaṃ |
jalasthalaṃ tribhāgena kūṭaśālāntare viduḥ || (Mayamata 30. 112 )

Here, the term aṅgana is analogous to alinda. An elongated room, which is six parts wide, should be incorporated into this construction. A gutter, two parts wide, should be constructed between the square outward and the elongated room. This gateway should be adorned with three aisles. Again, this kind of gateway has three categories; viz., Śricchanda, Śrīviśāla, and Vijaya.

6. Six storeyed gateways:

Maya suggests that the six-storeyed gateways should be arranged in the same manner as the seven-storeyed gateways are to be constructed. The exclusion of the lower storey converts it into a six-storeyed gateway. Three types of six-storeyed gateways are mentioned in the text Mayamata, viz., Subala, Sukumāra, and Sundara.

7. Seven Storeyed gateways:

Maya classifies the seven storeyed gateways into three categories. They are-bhadrakalyāṇa, subhadra and bhadrasundara. Here, we present the special features of these gateways.

7.1. Bhadrakalyāṇa type of gateways:

The width and length of this gateway should be measured as fourteen parts and sixteen parts, respectively. There is a central passage (nāligṛha) with the width of two parts and length of six parts, and is surrounded by a wall. Four aisles (alindra), each passing width of two parts, should be constructed within this gateway. Additionally, half-part-wide hāras should be arranged on all four sides of this gateway. A surrounding gallery, one part wide, should also be included in this bhadrakalyāṇa gateway. A wall (parito’linndra) of this gateway should be measured as one part. It is to be noted that the exterior wall of this gateway is to be measured as half a part wide, and two sides of this wall should be decorated in a pañjara shape (literally cage or aviary).

A sterobate should be placed at the bottom edge of every upper storey. The third storey of this gateway is to be adorned with various building elements. Similarly, engaged structures, gutters, etc., on each and every storey of this gateway, should be constructed with four aisles.

At the middle of the door on each upper storey, a pillar should be placed. The ridge should be arranged at the summit of roof with an odd number of finials (stupika).

The other significant elements of this gateway are arcatures (toraṇa), latticed windows (jālaka), and dormer windows (kṣudranīḍa). On the exterior wall of the aisle, a niche should be built at every storey.

Maya says that—

toraṇairjālikaiḥ kṣudranīḍaiḥ samyag vicitritaṃ |
tale tale mahābare yuktyā nyāsaṅgasaṃyutaṃ || (Mayamata 30.101)

A connecting stairway is to be constructed for climbing to the several socles. It is prescribed that to connect several storeys, a stairway should be arranged conveniently. Thus, the bhadrakalyāna type of gateway should be built according to vāstu rules.

7.2. Subhadra type of gateways:

The term Subhadra signifies that this type of construction must be adorned with elegant features. In this style, the middle and sides of the roof are embellished with niches, which should also be incorporated in the front and at back part of the structure.

7.3. Bhadrasundara type of gateways:

Above the central passage, there is a gutter that measures two parts in width. This gateway is to be constructed with an aedicule (sauṣṭhika). Additionally, four dormer windows, each two parts wide, should be placed on either side of the gateway and attached to the aedicule. The gateway has the width of sixteen parts and length of eighteen parts. Maya specifies that:

dviraṣṭadvinavāṃśena vyase parśve niyojayet |
svavyāsaṃśaṃ caturbhāge'pyadhikaṃ syāttadāyataṃ || (Mayamata 30.107 )

The other features of this gateway can be arranged according to the requirement of the construction. Thus, the bhadrasundara type of gateway should be made by a learned sthapati.

The description provides us the minute details that denote how the doors and gopura are to be built. The vāstukāras not only emphasize on the dimensions of the construction but also project the religious practices through it and beliefs. These structures carry cultural significance and play significant roles in traditional belief. The specific design of the construction reflects the traditions of a particular society. The inclusion of architectural elements like niches and dormer windows adds visual appeal and highlights the remarkable aspects of ancient design. Gopuras, with their towering structures and prominent visual placement, stand as iconic symbols of South Indian temple and residential architecture.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

P.K. Acharya, A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture, series.1. p. 174.

[2]:

S.P. Sabharathnam Sivacharyar, Kāmikāgama, p.554

[3]:

B. Dagens, Mayamata, vol.2. p.457