Miscellaneous information regarding Elephants from epigraphic data

Epigraphic source and its analysis clearly show its indispensability as a source for creating a thorough understanding on elephants and their use in early India. Even rulres have at times been mentioned as expert in elephantology. In this context the Mārasiṃha’s Maṇṇe inscription, 798 CE is worth mentioning. This record gives a long description of Śivamāra’s achievements^[1]. Śivamāra was a poet, grammarian and expert in elephant lore besides being a mighty king. Setubandha might be his another work^[2]. A Kannada inscription^[3] referred that the work on elephant lore by Śivamāra was known as Śivamāramata. He should also have written another work under the title Gajāṣṭaka which was sung by women while pounding rice etc., with pestles. This Gajāṣṭaka was probably written in Kannada^[4]. Śivamāra continued the tradition and made considerable contribution in spite of the political turmoil. His body bore the marks of hits of the elephant’s tusks according to the descriptions in some copper plates^[5].

From epigraphs it is evident that these leaders of elephant squad were very learned men and possessed several good qualities. Often they were veterinary doctors as well especially learned in elephant science i.e. Hastyāyurveda. Apart from the mention of general physicians (vaidyas) inscriptions refer to physicians of animals. We come across the name of Sāmasvāmi, a hastivaidya occurs in the Nagardhan plates of Svāmirāja^[6]. They also had their corporations as it is mentioned that at the request of the assembly of the corporations (Gaṇa samūha), which included the physicians of elephants among others, land was granted^[7].

We find references to several officers, though they were recruited in the service of royal elephant squad, but were men of multiple scholastic qualities. In the Chebrolu inscription of Jaya after Śaka-samvat 1135(CE 1213-1214) of Kṛiṣṇā district verses 13-27 refer to Jaya (v.20) or Jāyana (v.13) who was the chief of the elephant-troop of king Kākatiya Gaṇapati and had other virtues–he was the leader of actors and Vedic scholars, and the crest-jewel of the assembly of poets (v.13)^[8]. Another example is cited in the Thana plates of Rāmacandra of the Śaka year 1194 that the superintendent of all the elephant-riders (samasta-hastipakādhyakṣa), who was the acting chief minister of the kingdom, is better known as the famous author of two commentaries: the Āyurvedarasāyana on the Aṣṭāṅga-hṛdaya, and the Kaivalya-dīpaka on the Mūkta-phala and also wrote the encyclopaedic work Caturvarga cintāmaṇi. He did not take to full time practice of medicine because of his administrative duties^[9].

We come to know from many inscriptions about several other royal-posts regarding the elephants. The inscription of the Western Cālukya king Taila III (c.CE 1153) mentions his feudatory the Mahāsāmantādhipati, Kariturayapaṭṭasāhaṇi or groomer of the head-trappings of elephants and horses. “Kari’ is of course, the Sanskrit “Karin”, elephant. “Turaya’ is evidently corruption of the Sanskrit “turga”, horse, and is in fact, explained as such by the occurrence in line 30 of the Silāhāra grant of CE 1058^[10] of its Sanskrit form in the epithet “turga-ravanta” which appears as “turga-ravanta” in line 10 of the present record.

Though one would expect this profession as a hereditary one as it required skill and expertise yet we find that the next generation of such elephant trainers and in-charge of elephats also took to other professions. For example the son of a Hasty-ādhyakṣa was a scribe of the grants from Purle.

The Purle plates of Indravarman (the Ganga year 149) which stated:

“By the order of the Mahā-Mahattara Śivaśarman, this edict was written by Śambapura-Upādhyāya, the son of the Hasty-ādhyakṣa–the chief of the elephants–the Sarvādhikṛta Dharmacandra” (l.28)^[11].

A very interesting and unique reference to the use of elephants must or the rutting juice secreting from the frontal lobe for preparation of washable ink is found from an epigraphic record. The Rewa stone inscription of Karṇa of the year 8, mentions about the preparation of an ink from the rutting juice of elephant.

This ink was used for writing on the Himalayan birch-barks:

(bhurjjatyvacaḥ saṅkalitebhadānapāthomasiva[ṇṇa]viśeṣabhājaḥ.
himācale yena vaśīkṛtāṇāṃ bhujiṣyapattrāṇyabhavannṛpā[ṇāṃ](ṇām) II” (V.29)^[12]).

This ink was probably prepared by heating and carbonizing the sweet rutting juice.

Epigraphs provide us onomastic information a study of place names have been carried here in the thesis in detail. Names directly related to elephants are Hastileṇḍāgrāma (Hatiapali, Khandipada taluk, Puri dist). Hastigrāma (Vaishali), Hastipāda, Hastināpurakṣetra, Sivarāgrāma (Sivarā means elephant, m. Subulia) etc. and names inferring the presence of elephants, such as Dantayavāgumadamba, Dantayavāgubhoga-famous for the gruel made for elephants and consequently for elephants, identified with Dantavarapukota in Srikakulam dist., Lohaśṛṅgara-“Loha” means iron, copper or any metal and “śṛṅgāra” may be chains–“śruṅkhalā” or some ornament for elephants (Lausinga, Seranga police station in Paralakimedi taluk, Ganjam dist.) etc.^[13]

Besides these literary sources speak about Hatthiyāna (elephant carriage), Dantakāra-vīthi (street of ivory workers), Nāga-vīthi (elephant road) and so on. In the time of Pāṇini we come to know about different kinds of transporting roads, such as Karipatha along with Ajapatha, Śaṅkupatha, Devapatha, Haṃsapatha, Sthalapatha, Rājapatha (Gaṇapāṭha).^[14] For the success of internal and external trade are responsible good roads and government officers to regulate the movement on them. That Kauṭilya in his Arthaśāstra recommended different kinds of important roads for transportation with their measurements. It states that the roads leading to the reserve forests for elephants should be twelve feet wide.^[15] So it is evident that elephants played an important role in trade. From the Mauryan period onwards nobody could tour without a passport (mudrā). The Superintendent of Passports (Mudrādhyakṣa) also protected the forests and elephant reserves (Arthaśāstra, II, 34.12). For protective measures in the forests, dogs and hunters were employed.^[16]

Bṛatsaṃhitā of Varāhamihira gives some geographical identification like Gajāhvaya (XIV.14) and Kuñjaradarī (XVI.16). The first one identified with another name of Hastināpura, ancient capital of Kuru country (Meerat district, Uttara Pradesh) and the later one which literary means “the elephants” cave or glen” situated in the southern division. Utpala, a commentator on Bṛhatsaṃhitā ascertain Kuñjaradarī as Hastikhaṇḍā, the boundary of Travancore and Tiruneveli districts.^[17]

Following table shows a summary of above mentioned topics in a selective mode:

Topics	Samples (selective)
Names of several kings who were good elephant riders.	Rāṣṭrakūṭa king Amoghavarṣadeva (Vaddiga), Gaṅga king Vijayāditya and so on.
The use of epithets by kings related to elephants.	“Gajapatis” of Odissa, “Gajāṅkuśa Cola” (Coḍas of Reṇāṇḍu), “Tribhuvanāṅkuśa” (Guṇaga-Vijayāditya, etc.
The name of royal elephants	Royal elephant Mānasiddhi of the Kalacuri king Ulhaṇadeva.
Description given in some inscriptions help us to draw the picture of the battle fields that how elephants were engaged in warfare.	There is an elegantly sculptured hero stone bearing an inscription, kept at the entrance of the Mamlatdar’s office at Roṇ, Dharwar district belongs to the reign of (the Rāṣṭrakūṭa king) Kannaradeva of A.D.942 the lower panel of this hero stone depicts a battle scene where heroes mounted on two elephants and horse-back are depicted.
Rutting elephants, symbol of victory.	Numerous epigraphs mentions about these fact.
Capturing of elephants of the enemies in the battle field was very common and at times they were given away as gifts in the redistribution process.	1. Pillar inscription in the Mūlasthāneśvara temple at Nāndeṇḍla refers to glorious squad of elephants of the Gaṅga kings of Kaliṅga–describes captured war elephants also used as gift. 2. The Bilhari pillar inscription of Yuvarajadeva II enables us to have a graphic picture of capturing of elephants in war.
Some of the royal seals especially those attached to land grants also bear the elephant as the main motif or royal emblem. Besides seals elephants have also been depicted on the vedikā or slabs of image inscriptions.	Devises are: 1.“Gaja-Lakṣmī” or “Abhiṣeka- Lakṣmī”, 2.the single representation of elephant or elephant skull and also 3.elephant-goad
Chronographic form	Ahi, nāga, gaja, dantin, diggaja, hastin, mātaṅga, kuñjara, dvipa etc. counted in the sense to express number “eight” (8).
Officers of elephant squad or guilds of elephants were also engaged in land grant procedures.	The Mehar plate of Damodara, the Nagardhan plates of Svāmirāja etc.
Inscriptions show how elephants helped to fix the boundary of the donated land. Measuring unit of “gaja” might have originated form this kind of an activity.	The Bahur plates of Nṛpatuṅgavarman, the Leiden plates. They refer to the ceremony of Kariṇī-parikramaṇa or in Tamil Piḍiśuḷdal.
Usage of elephants besides war-fares, and use of ivory	Rewa stone inscription of Karṇa of the year 8 tells us the rutting juice of elephants was used as a writing material, by this sweet fluid the writers of ancient India made ink which was so useful to write on the Himalayan birch-barks.
Association of elephants with all religious groups and communities is attested on epigraphic records.	Especially with Śiva and Gaṇeśa or Gajānana, use of a symbol like “Ƣ” or “āṃji’ (“Siddhir=astu’) was supposed to signify the god Gaṇeśa, the giver of success, being drawn to represent his elephant’s trunk.
Mythological expressions	Among śapta-mātṛkās goddess Indrānī has elephant as her vāhana or is represented as an elephant herself. She is the symbol of fertility and also believed to ease child birth.
Kings who wrote treatises on elephants	Gaṅga king Śrīpuruṣa (A.D. 725-788). His son Śivamāra (A.D.788-812) - Kalpanāratnam or Śivamāramata, a work on preservation of elephants and ivory.
Physicians of elephants and their corporations	The name of Sāmasvāmi, a hastivaidya occurs in the Nagardhan plates of Svāmirāja. They also had their corporations as it is mentioned that at the request of the assembly of the corporations (Gaṇa samūha), which included the physicians of elephants among others, land was granted.
Miscellaneous	Rewa stone inscription of Karṇa of the year 8, mentions about the preparation of an ink from the rutting juice of elephant.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

EC, Vol. IX, Nelamangala 60

[2]:

H.V. Nagaraja Rao. ed. & tr. Śrī Śivamārabhūpāla Praṇītam Kalpanāratnam, p.viii

[3]:

EC, Vol. VIII, Nagara 35

[4]:

H.V. Nagaraja Rao. ed. & tr. Śrī Śivamārabhūpāla Praṇītam Kalpanāratnam, p.ix.

[5]:

Mysore Archaeological Report, 1919, pp.21-24.

[6]:

EI, Vol.XXVIII, pp. 1-11.

[7]:

S. Basu Majumar & Nayana Sharma Mukherjee. Essays on History of Medicine, Nasik: IIRNS Publications Pvt. Ltd., 2013, p.19.

[8]:

EI, Vol.V, pp. 145 & 149.

[9]:

Susmita Basu Majumdar and Nayana Sharma Mukherjee. Essays on History of Medicine, p.16.

[10]:

Cave Temple Inscriptions, No.10. p.102.

[11]:

EI, Vol. XIV, p.363.

[12]:

CII, Vol. IV, pp. 270 & 274.

[13]:

Malati Mahajan. Orissa: From Place Names in Inscriptions C.260B.C.-1200A.D. (Cultural and Historical Geography), Delhi: Sharada Publishing House, 2003, pp. 65-66.

[14]:

Moti Chandra. Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1977, p.53.

[15]:

Ibid., p.77.

[16]:

Ibid., p.82.

[17]:

Ajay Mitra Shastri. India as seen in The Bṛhatsaṃhitā of Varāhamihira, Delhi: Motilal Benarsidass, 1969, p.111.