The Markandeya Purana (Study)

by Chandamita Bhattacharya | 2021 | 67,501 words

This page relates ‘philosophy of Yoga (Introduction)’ of the study on the Markandeya Purana, one of the oldest of the eigtheen Mahapuranas preserving the history, civilisation, culture and traditions of ancient India. The Markandeyapurana commences with the questions raised by Rishi Jaimini (a pupil of Vyasa), who approaches the sage Markandeya with doubts related to the Mahabharata. This study examines various social topics such as the status of women, modes of worship, yoga, etc.

The philosophy of Yoga (Introduction)

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Yoga and Sāṃkhya may be considered to belong to the same family. Sāṃkhya refers to the theoretical concept whereas Yoga may be treated as its practical counterpart. The word Yoga comes from the English word ‘yoke’ meaning to join.^[1] Yoga joins the divinity within us with the pervasive divinity around us.^[2] Basically, Yoga is the joining of the ātman and brahman. The word Yoga is found to have several meanings used in several senses. In the Ṛgveda, Yoga literally means “yoking” or “connecting” which practically means to yoke the mind in order to increase the concentration power of the mind to achieve the unachieved.^[3] The word ‘yoking’ was found in the later Vedic period also.^[4]

Śrīmadbhagavadgītā explains both Sāṃkhya and Yoga together:

akaṃ sāṃkhyaṃ ca yogaṃ ca yaḥ paśyati sa paśyati.^[5]

The word Yoga is derived from the root yuj with the suffix ghañ which have two meanings, union (yujir Yoge) and concentration (yuj samādhan) i.e. the union of the individual soul and the supreme soul.^[6] Śrīmadbhagavadgītā explains the word in both senses.^[7] However, both these meanings equally hold well in the Gītā. But, according to Patañjali, Yoga does not mean union. He puts forward another significant meaning of Yoga which is complete suppression of mental modes. According to Patañjali and Kapila, Yoga means to achieve stability in the mental state in order to have commendable control over the mind which, in turn, enables one to discriminate between Puruṣa or the soul and the Prakriti.^[8] Thus the term Yoga designated as viyoga i.e. separation between Prakṛti and Puruṣa.^[9]

The Yoga Philosophy

According to Upaniṣads, controlling the senses is known as Yoga.^[10] The Amarakoṣa gives the definition of Yoga.^[11] The Yājñavalkya states that the combination of the individual soul and the supreme soul is yoga.^[12] The Purāṇas explain the definition of Yoga in various ways.

According to the Viṣṇupurāṇa,

ātmaprayagtnasāpekṣā viśiṣṭā yā manogatiḥ /
tasyā brahmaṇi saṃyogo yoga ithyabhidhīyate /^[13]

Here Yoga means the intellectual activity specified by one’s own efforts by which one becomes united with Brahman.

According to Skandapurāṇa,

cittavṛttinirodhākhyaṃ yogatattvaṃ prakīrtitam //^[14]

I.e. the element of Yoga signifies to contain the control of the instability of the mind. The Lingapurāṇa also states that acquiring the knowledge of everything in this world is called Yoga.^[15] According to the Garuḍapurāṇa, the unity among the Brahman and ātman is called Yoga.^[16] The Agnipurāṇa states that, Yoga is a kind of mental activity. Yoga depends upon one’s own effort and union with Brahman.^[17] It is defined as the connection of accurate coordination between the mind and the senses. The Brahmapurāṇa states that only sitting in padmāsana and concentrating on the tip of the nose is not considered to be Yoga.^[18]

Maharṣi Patañjali is known as the founder of the Yoga system. Pātanjali’s Yoga system yet this fact cannot be denied that Yoga has been followed by people from the ancient time.

The oldest recorded text book of Yoga is the Yogasūtra of Maharṣi Patañjali. At the very outset of the book, Patañjali made the readers very clear that yoga only means complete suppression of the mental modes which requires immense concentration power of the mind i.e., cittavṛttinirodhaḥ.^[19] The Yogasūtra consists of four chapters or Pādas, containing different objectives and the explanations. The first chapter, samādhipāda, primarily concentrates on the nature and aim of Samādhi or meditative absorption in 51 sūtras. The second chapter called sādhanapāda, containing 55 sūtras, elaborates the ways to find the path to the end. The third chapter namely vibhūtipāda describes in 55 sūtras, the different techniques of Yoga practices to achieve supernatural powers. The fourth chapter kaivalyapāda, which contains 34 sūtras, discusses the nature and ways for liberation.^[20]

It has been already stated that Yoga and Sāṃkhya are subjects that are correlated and there is only a little difference in the philosophical principles between the two. One striking difference between the two is that Yoga clearly points out the ways following which one can attain the knowledge of distinction between the self and the not self which Sāṃkhya seems to lack. But ultimately both aim at attaining the most important knowledge of life, the discriminative knowledge (viveka-khyāti). According to Mukta Biswas, “for all practical purposes Sāṃkhya and Yoga may be treated as the theoretical and practical sides of the same system.”^[21] The Yoga philosophy admits the existence of God. Even though, it acknowledges the presence of God, It does not deviate from the principles laid down in the Sāṃkhya. Therefore, Yoga philosophy is also regarded as theistic Sāṃkhya in many instances. Both Yoga and Sāṃkhya philosophy favour the dualism of Puruṣa and Prakṛti. Prakṛti is unique and is non intelligent whereas Puruṣa is many in number and is conscious. The Sāṃkhya acknowledges twenty five principles and so does Yoga. However, there is an additional principle that can be found in Yoga philosophy which is God. But according to Yoga, God is only a special form of Puruṣa or the self who is eternally liberated and can see or sense the eternal truth.^[22] Perception, inference and testimony are the three pramāṇas accepted by the Yoga philosophy.

According to Yoga philosophy, the mind (also citta or buddhi) experiences a constant modification throughout the life. These mental modifications take place as a result of gain of knowledge. Yoga philosophy acknowledges pain as a mode of citta. To get rid of this pain, one has to have complete control over his mind so that no modification of citta can take place. All the pains cease as the further modification in the citta ceases.^[23] This is why, Maharṣi Patañjali, emphasizes on complete suppression of mental modes in his book Yogasūtra. On the Yogasūtra, Vyāsa wrote a commentary called Vyāsabhāṣya or Yogabhāṣya. After that some scholars Vācaspati Miśra, Vijñānabhikṣu, Bhojorāja etc. have developed this Yoga system.

Yoga in the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa

Almost all the Purāṇas, specially the Matsypurāṇa,^[24] the Skandapurāṇa,^[25] the Viṣṇupurāṇa,^[26] the Kūrmapurāṇa,^[27] the Liṅgapurāṇa^[28], the Agnipurāṇa^[29] , the Garuḍapurāṇa^[30] , the Bhāgavatapurāṇa,^[31] the Vāyupurāṇa,^[32] the Brahmapurāṇa,^[33] etc. describe the different aspects of Yoga philosophy. Manvantara, Yoga, method of computation of a Yoga and division of time, Yoga in relation to events and personalities etc have been discussed in the Vāyupurāṇa.^[34] The realization of the ultimate reality through the attainment of Brahmahood as Maheśvara has been also discussed in this Purāṇa. This is called apavarga.^[35] This realisation is achieved through the manas and buddhi. It also discusses the attainment of Brahman. This can be attained through the power of the Yoga.

The Brahma-bhakti, which may be Kāyika, Vācika and Mānasika, Vaidiki and Ādhyātmiki have been delineated in the Padmapurāṇa. This Ādhyātmiki bhakti is further subdivided into the Yoga bhakti and Sāṃkhya bhakti.^[36] In the Padmapurāṇa, the practice of prāṇayāma and meditation upon Lord Brahmā, is called Yoga bhakti.^[37]

The Markaṇḍeyapurāṇa is one of the oldest and most important of the extant Purāṇas. Among the 134 chapters, this Purāṇa contains five chapters viz, 36 to 40 chapters dealing with Nivṛtti dharma or Yoga. In this Purāṇa, Dattatreya said to Alarka how one can get final emancipation through the attain yoga or control of the breath, control of the senses, meditation etc.