Dress and Clothing

In the early times, people used leaves and barks of trees to cover their bodies. The body covering process was developed day by day and at last the clothes and garments came into existence. According to the Śatapathabrāhmaṇa, the garment enhances the beauty of human beings.^[1] According to Vayūpurāṇa, tretā age of luxuriant vegetation and the trees offered man his requirements of clothes and ornaments.^[2] In the Śraddha, the clothes are the primary necessity of men. In the ancient times, the clothes were used as gifts to Brahmins on various occasions and ritual acts.^[3]

The tradition of gifting clothes to the Brahmanas has been referred to in the Purāṇas which is found in the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa also.^[4] It is noticed that at the time of performing a sacrifice king Nariṣyanta bestowed upon the Brahmanas cloths, ornaments etc.^[5] At the time of birth of grandson Marutta, king Karandhama gifted clothes and various other things to Brahmins.^[6] It is also believed that those people who bestow clothes in gifts easily cross the road to the abode of Yama.^[7] In another example, king Dama was bestowed clothes and other things as a gift by his father-in-law after his marriage.^[8] In this context it is also mentioned that, stealing of cloths are sinful act leading to the birth of a hare.^[9]

Some limitations of dress are also prescribed in this Purāṇa. For example, single garment is prohibited for a man^[10] at the time of worshiping of Gods and eating.^[11] A person could not wear red, black and mix colourful clothes.^[12] Transparent and damaged clothes were also to be avoided.^[13]

Use of Skin and Bark Garments:

From the ancient times, the people used the skin and the garments of bark as daily wear. The Maruts wear deer skins and a muni is clad in skins or soiled garments.^[14] In the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, certain Brahmin sages are referred to as clad in hides of black antelopes.^[15] The forest hermits (vānaprasthas) wear valkalas i.e. bark garments.^[16] When king Heriscandra [Hariścandra?] gifted his territory to sage Visvāmitra, Visvāmitra told Hariscandra to put off all the ornaments, clothes etc. and wear barks of trees.^[17] The deer skin is prohibited to a house-holder having a son.^[18]

Various Types of Clothes and Garments

The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, describes various kind of clothes and garments which were used at that time. These clothes and garments are described below.

Kauśeya—

Kauśeya is a kind of silk garment. This is made out of fibres, produced by silkworms.^[19] The Bhāgavatapurāṇa mentions the use of this garment in detail.^[20] The Rāmāyaṇa also mentions kauśeya.^[21] Kalidasa refers to this garment in his drama Abhijñānasakuntalam.^[22] In the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa one who steals kauśeya is reborn as a Cakravāka bird.^[23]

Dukūla—

This is a kind of fine cloth. According to Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, stealing of Dukūla clothes is considered as a sinful act for which the stealer of this is born as a peacock i.e. sārṅgaka.^[24] Amarakośa described the word dukūla is a synonym of kṣauma.^[25]

Aṃśuka—

Aṃśuka is a white cloth, a kind of upper garment. In the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa it is said that one who steals a ṃśuka reborn as a parrot (śuka).^[26]

Kṣauma—

Kṣauma is a kind of linen cloth which is made of flax. The Rāmāyaṇa^[27] , the Mahābhārata^[28] and the Bhagavatapurāṇa^[29] also mention this garment. In the Abhijñāśakuntalam of Kalidasa, it is mentioned that Śakuntalā was gifted auspicious moon white kṣauma vastra by the forest deity at the time of sending her to her husband’s house.^[30] The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa mentions kṣauma in the context of the result of stealing something. It is quoted here that one who steals kṣauma garments is reborn as a boar.^[31] In the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, child wearing the kṣauma vastra, serves as a charm against the evil influence of a male violent spirit which is called Dantākṛṣṭi.^[32]

Kārpāsika—

This word means cotton garments. The use of kārpāsika is mentioned in Āśvalāyanaśrautasūtra.^[33] According to Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, a person who steals kārpāsika is reborn as a krauñca bird.^[34] Also it is stated that kārpāsika clothes cleaned with ashes and water.^[35]

Varṇaka—

Varṇaka means coloured blanket. According to Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, one who steals the Varṇaka is reborn as a peacock.^[36]

Āstaraṇa—

The meaning of this word [āstaraṇa] is covering. In the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, beds of diverse kinds arranged with heavenly covering are referred to: śayyāśca vividhā divairāstaraṇairyutāḥ.^[37] Coverings made from the hairs of the spotted deer (rāṅkavāstaraṇa) are also referred to.^[38]

Kanthā—

This word [kanthā] means an old or patched or ragged garment. In the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, king Hariścandra referred to as being clothed in patched cloth made of old rages well fastened together in his guise of a cāṇḍāla.^[39]

Adhovastra—

Adhovastra is a kind of lower garment. In this Purāṇa, it is said that one who blows one’s head with a lower garment, dish leather (carma) and a winnowing basket, loses one’s good deeds.^[40]

Āvika—

Āvika is a kind of woollen cloth which is made of sheep’s wool. In the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, for that householder, who is having single son, kṛṣṇāvika i.e. black woollen cloth is prohibited in a house.^[41] The Bṛhadāraṇyakaupaniṣad also mentions about this cloth.^[42]

Kambala—

It means a woollen blanket. The use of kambala has been stated in the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa that at the time of meditation on supreme Brahma, a yogī should cover himself with a mental white blanket.^[43]

Yogapaṭṭaka—

These clothes [yogapaṭṭaka] are prohibited for those person who are having a son and having his father alive.^[44]

Use of Colourful Garments

Different colours of the garments have been referred from the ancient time.^[45] The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa mentions many colours of garments viz. white, yellow, black, red, multi-coloured etc. in many places. It is also stated that stealing of red coloured clothes is a sinful act which leads to the birth of a Jīvañjīvaka bird.^[46] Again, red coloured, black coloured and multi-coloured garments are prohibited for the gṛhastha’s use.^[47] Only the white clothes are specially recommended for the gṛhastha’s use.^[48] In the Yoga chapter, it is discussed that red and black cloths are connected with evil-forebodings in dreams.^[49]

Garments Washing

Washing of various types of clothes are mentioned in the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa. For example, clothes and leather are cleaned with water.^[50] The antelope-hides and thick clothes are sprinkled with water, the bark garments^[51] are washed with water and clay,^[52] āvika clothes with oily sediment of the white mustard or the sediment from sesame seed^[53] , damaged clothes were washed with water and cotton clothes were washed with water and ashes.^[54] Thus water is mainly used to wash the clothes. Sometimes water, in combination with clay or ashes etc. are used.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

rupaṃvā etat puruṣaṣya yad vāsastasmād yameva kañca suvāsasamāhuḥ ko’nvayamiti rūpasamṛddho hi bhavati. Śatapathabrāhmana, 13.4.1.15

[2]:

vṛkṣās te gṛha-saṃsthitāḥ vastrāṇi ca prasūyante phalānyābharaṇāni ca / Vayupurāṇa, 8.89

[3]:

Ibid., 80.4-6

[4]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 8.82-83

[5]:

Ibid., 129.20

[6]:

Ibid., 125.10

[7]:

Ibid., 10.69

[8]:

Ibid., 130.63

[9]:

Ibid., 15.70

[10]:

Ibid., 31.16

[11]:

Ibid., 31.34

[12]:

Ibid., 31.45

[13]:

Ibid., 31.46

[14]:

Ibid., 10.136

[15]:

kṛsṇājināmbarāḥ / Ibid., 6.30

[16]:

Ibid., 25.26

[17]:

Ibid., 7.34

[18]:

Ibid., 32.53

[19]:

Ghana kanta Bhagawati, The Bhāgawat purāṇa, A Socio-Cultural Study, p. 230-231

[20]:

Bhagavatapurāṇa, 8.6.4; 10.39.46; 10.84.49; 11.30.29

[21]:

Rāmāyana, Ayodhyākāṇḍa, 37.9; Araṇyakāṇḍ, 46.13

[22]:

Abhijñānasakuntalā, act. 1.31

[23]:

kauśeyaṃ corayitvā tu cakravākatvamṛcchati / Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 15.26 b

[24]:

Ibid., 15.27

[25]:

Amarakośa, 2.6.113

[26]:

........ hṛte caivāṃśuka śukaḥ / Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 15.27 a

[27]:

Rāmāyana, Ayodhyakāṇḍa, 8.7

[28]:

Mahābhārata, Sauptikaparva, 8.13

[29]:

Bhagavatapurāṇa, 3.23.14; 10.9.3; 10.70.9; 10.75.22

[30]:

kṣaumaṃ kenacidindeepāṇḍu taruṇā māṅgalyamāviṣkṛtam / Abhijñāśakuntalam, 4.5

[31]:

ṛkṣaścaivāvikaṃ hatvā vastraṃ kṣaumaṃ ca jāyate/ Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 15.28 a

[32]:

Ibid., 48.7

[33]:

Āśvalāyana, 2.3.4.17

[34]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 15.28

[35]:

Ibid., 32.11 a

[36]:

Ibid., 15.29

[37]:

Ibid., 62.4

[38]:

Ibid., 8.30

[39]:

jīrṇakarpaṭasugranthi kṛtakanthā parigrahaḥ / Ibid., 8.127 a

[40]:

Ibid., 32.59

[41]:

Ibid., 32.53

[42]:

Bṛhadāraṇyakaupaniṣad, 2.3.6

[43]:

prāvṛtya kambalaṃ śuklaṃ yogī tasmānmanomayam/ Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 37.14 a

[44]:

Ibid., 32.53,57

[45]:

V.M. Apte, Social and Religious Life in the Grihya Sutras, p.56

[46]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 15.29

[47]:

Ibid., 31.55

[48]:

Ibid., 31.89

[49]:

Ibid., 9.40; 16.33

[50]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 32.4

[51]:

Ibid., 32.9

[52]:

Ibid., 32.10

[53]:

Ibid., 32.11

[54]:

Ibid., 32.12