Forms of Marriage

There are various forms of the Hindu marriage system which differ from each other in ritual and mode. The Gṛhyasūtra^[1] and the Smṛti texts^[2] have recognised eight forms of marriage which are discussed more or less in different śāstras. In the Viṣṇupurāṇa^[3] and in the Mahābhārata^[4] also eight forms of marriage have been mentioned. All these forms were prevalent in ancient Indian society.

These eight forms of marriage [which all have individual characteristics] are:

1. Brāhma^[5],
2. Prājāpatya,^[6]
3. Ārṣa,^[7]
4. Daiva,^[8]
5. Āsura,^[9]
6. Gāndharva,^[10]
7. Rakṣasa^[11] and
8. Paiśāca^[12].

Among all eight types of marriage, the Brāhma marriage is considered for all castes and the other forms of marriage are permitted for non-brahmins.^[13] It is observed that the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa lays more importance in mentioning the Gāndharva and Rakṣasa marriage. It is stated in this Purāṇa that the Gāndharva form of marriage was decided for the Kṣatriyas only and not for the other castes.^[14] Again of the above mentioned forms the Rakṣasa form is esteemed as more excellent in case of Kṣatriyas.^[15] Manu also approves Gāndharvā and Rakśasa forms of marriage.^[16]

The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa gives two examples of the Rākṣasa marriage. The first example is found in case of Nābhāga, the son of king Diṣṭa, who married a Vaiśya lady named Suprabhā. It is evident from his courageous speech when he invites someone, having strength, to free Suprabhā whom he abducted and married under Rākṣasa form of marriage.^[17] Another examples of Rākṣasa marriage are found in case of Avikṣita, who had taken away, by force, the princess named Varā, Gaurī, Subhadrā, Līlāvatī, Anibhā, Mānyavatā and Kumudvati though, in svayaṃvara, they did not approve him at the svayaṃvara.^[18] Avikṣita also married Vaiśālini, daughter of the king of Vidiśā by force, at the time of her svayaṃvara, though she did not want to choose him as her husband.^[19]

There is another important incident of marriage which is the instance of both the Gāndharva and the Rākṣasa forms of marriage. Here, king Narisyanta’s son, Dama, being against to the three princes (Mahānanda, Vapuṣmān and Mahādhanu), tried to marry (Cārudharman’s daughter) princess Sumanā by force who had chosen her dream prince Dama at her Svayaṃvara. But the other three princes tried to take her by force. Dama was late in accordance with marriage rules, asserted his right and defeated the other kings and married Sumanā. This bears the example of the Gāndharva marriage. Though certain kings, approving Gāndharva marriage, justified Dama to be the husband of Sumanā, yet some other kings expressed their view that she, who was forcibly carried away by the three princes, slaying their opposers, would belong to them. This incident supports the Rākṣasa form of marriage. Thus Rakṣasa marriage seems to be more acceptable at that time. But in the present time more examples of Prājāpatya and Gādharva marriage are found.

Another three customs relating to marriage are monogamy, polygamy and polyandry.^[20] The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa contains references of these three customs also.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Āśvalāyanagṛhyasūtra, 1.6

[2]:

brāhmo-daivastathaivārṣaḥ prājāpatya-stathā’suraḥ /
gāndharvo rākṣasaścaiva paiśācāṣṭamaḥ smṛtaḥ // Manusmṛti, 3.21; Yājñavalkyasmṛti, 3.58-61

[3]:

Viṣṇupurāṇa, 3.10-24

[4]:

Mahābhārata, 1.67.8-9

[5]:

brāhmo vivāha āhūya dīyate śaktyalaṅkṛtā / Yājñavalkyasmṛti, 1.58 ab

[6]:

sahaubhau caratāṃ dharmamiti vācānubhāṣya ca /
kanyāpradānambhyarccya prājāpatyo vidhiḥ smṛtaḥ // Manusmṛt i, 3.30

[7]:

adāyārṣastu godvayam / Yājñavalkyasmṛti, 1.59

[8]:

yajñastha ṛtvije daivaḥ / Ibid., 1.59

[9]:

āsuro draviṇādānāt / Ibid., 1.61

[10]:

gāndharvaḥ samayān mithaḥ / Ibid., 1.61
icchayā’nyonyasaṃyogaḥ kanyāyāśca varasya ca /
gāndharvaḥ sa tu vijñeyo maithunyaḥ kāmasambhavaḥ // Manusmṛti,3.32

[11]:

rākṣaso yuddaharaṇāt / Yājñavalkyasmṛti, 1.61

[12]:

paiśācaḥ kanyakāchalāt / Ibid., 1.61

[13]:

Candraśekharendra Sarasvatī Svāmī, Hindu Dharma the universal way of life, p.577

[14]:

parasparānurāgeṇa gāndharvo vihito vidhiḥ //
kṣṭriyānāṃ paramayaṃ na vidśūdradvijanmanām / Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 130.23 b-24 a

[15]:

pradhānatara eṣo’tra vivāhadvitaye mataḥ / Ibid., 130.29 a

[16]:

pṛthakpṛthakvā misriovā vivāhah pūrvacoditau /
gāndharvau rākṣasacśaiva dharmau kṣṭraya tau smṛtau // Manusmṛti, 3.26

[17]:

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, 110.23

[18]:

Ibid., 119.16-19

[19]:

Ibid., 119.20

[20]:

Ghana Kanta Bhagawati, The Bhāgawat purāṇa, A Socio-Cultural Study, p.71