5. Iconography and Images (Pratima)

The technical and speculative texts on natya, alamkara and silpa, as well as isolated and incidental comments on art in creative and scholastic literature are guidelines in the iconography. Earlier, a real and significant difference was not made between 'art' and 'craft' as understood today, but there was difference in objects produced by artistic skill and objects produced merely

228 by technical virtuosity. "All such texts and relevant passages indicate clearly that while artistic skill implies and involves the employment of the mind and imagination, aesthetic experience and creative energy; the latter implies and involves reproduction by mechanical but well-practised application of rules established by tradition. From this point of view, an icon, a metal utensil, an earthen pot, a terracotta toy, even a piece of wooden furniture, for instance, can be an object of art, while a piece of stone-sculpture or bronze or of painting can be merely technical. Indian archaeology has provided us with a rich repertory of icons in stone, bronze, terracotta and painting. They certainly served very well their purpose as aids to the meditators and devotees, but they are not necessarily all objects of art. On the other hand, archaeology has also provided us with a considerable number of objects of practical 109 11 A terracotta toy, a ritualistic purnaghata, use. a piece of scroll-painting for popular entertainment and edification, for instance, quite a few of such pieces are admirable objects of art. Art, here means artistic skill as distinguished from mere technical skill, 109. Nitharanjan Ray. 'An Approach to Indian Art' (Publication Bureau, Punjab University, Chandigarh, 1974), p. 111.

229 artistic skill implying and involving the employment of the mind and imagination of an aesthetic experience and creative energy. M Pratima (image) A work of art is a murti, an image, an embodiment of felt idea, that is, of an inner experience. It is indeed a concretization, in one material or another, an externalization, _ so to say, of an intuitive vision. A painting or sculpture is called a Citra in Sanskrit. Pratima means image. The word Pratimalaksana literally means a work giving an accurate description of Pratima. Just as Citra-laksana is a compendium of painting, so Pratima-laksana would be a compendium of sculpture. But there is one important difference. Citra gives instructions about the art of making pictures or paintings. Pratimalaksana, however, does not do so. It may be that whatever has been said in Citra about the technique, is to be taken as holding good for Pratima-making, of course with necessary modifications. Pratima-ləksana describes iconographic features of divine beings and, what is more important is, the significance of the various emblems in terms of religion and philosophy. It provides us with important clues for interpreting the understanding religious sculptures of ancient India. The discussion relates

230 to the rules and principles of the structure, or form of a given art, which are understandably different from one 110 art to another. A murti, or image which is one object of art communicates itself through its own imagery, through the presence of its own being. It is not just a logical construct of symbols, which an icon is, but a powerful unified and coherent structure of form, an entity, by itself which is vital, patent and dynamic, being impregnated with Prana and Rupa, respectively the breath and sap of life. It is therefore not without reason that the most significant quality which characterizes traditional Indian art-forms is their inner life-movement, their dynamism. is to afford a direct experience of this life-movement, in other words, of life which is the fundamental precondition of being and becoming. The main purpose of an image or murti The humanist orientation of Indian art lies in the human experiences. A murti, according to Indian notion, is not a copy of the external shape and appearance of the objects of the external perceptual world; nevertheless it must have a 110. Ibid. pp.100-170.

231 reference to or verisimilitude with such objects. (Sadrsya). 111 Preparation of image The very first general rule pertains to the question of making an image beautiful, so as to attract God inside it. What is a beautiful image? Almost all the silpa texts deal with this question. The image according to the Manasollasa should be complete in all the limbs, a little stout, looking gentle, possessing prescribed implements and hands. Here Somesvara mentions that 112 Sarvayavasampurnah means, no image should be Adhikanga i.e., possessing more or greater limbs and sizes, or Hinanga, i.e., devoid of any limbs, or of shorter sizes. The image should not be of terrific look. An image should possess all the limbs so that it may give merit as well as pleasure to the mind. An image should have a good face and good cheeks, it must look happy and must possess beautiful appearance, good arms 111. atgari fmoua acg add gintaro likhyate yattu darpana pratibimbavat || : : || 3.1.939. 112. sarvayavasampurnah kimcitpina drsoh priyah | qutqartyjant atera qutlad: 11 1.2.79.

232 113 and hands and a big chest and so on. None of the limbs should be crooked (Vakra). The image must have its laksana, beautiful limbs and ornaments, and must express some bhava. The technical process of making the image brilliant was to rub it with oil, hair or diamond or a 114 kind of stone, which was called 'Naga'. An image of gold is to be rubbed with boar-tusk till it becomes 115 bright like lightning. Vajralepa is very important in all types of paints and images so that they might 116 look like a mirror and last long. Somesvara gives the description about the preparation of the Vajralepa. He says 'The leather of a buffalo just killed should be kept in water till it becomes soft like butter. This mass should be rounded into pencils of convenient sizes and dried, till they become hard. They should be boiled in 113. tato dravyamayi sa'rca yatha madananirmita | jayate tadrsi saksadgopangopasobhita || 1.11.96. 11 4. yattu nilagirau jatam svetam candrasamaprabham | naganamnaiva vikhyatam silayam pariyesitam || 3.1.1.48. 115. varahadamstraya tattu ghattayetkanakam sanaih ! yavatkantim samayati vidyuccakitavigraham || 3.1.186. 116. vajralepo maya khyatah citre sarvatra sasyate | tam krtva mrttikapatre toyam ksiptva pratapayet || sa tapto dravatam yati sarvavarsesu tadravah | misraniyapramanena yatha varno na nasyati || 3.1.145. Cf. D.D.Mehta, "Positive Science in the Vedas" (Arnold Heinemann Publishers (India) Private Limited, New Delhi, 1974) p.102. Vajralepa means powders or cements which were exceedingly strong.

233 earthen pots till they become pasty. This paste is to be mixed in the various paints to maintain the beauty of 117 Further he says that the them in the paintings. Vajralepa and pure white soil are to be mixed and applied on the dry wall. After it is dried, the same thing is to be repeated thrice. Later powdered sankha, fine sugar and the Vajralepa should be mixed to form paste. 118 This paste is to be applied to the wall to make the surface of the wall smooth. The paintings drawn on such a wall will be more beautiful and durable. The painter should exploit this facility for expressing the Navaras, 119 Havabhavas etc. through attractive paintings. 117. mahisam tvacamadaya navam toyena mailayet | navanitamivayati yavaccikkanatam bhrsam || tatkalkam cikvanibhutam salakah parikalpayet | yatnena sosayetpascadyavatka thinyamapnuyuh || vajralepo maya'khyatah citre sarvatra sasyate tam krtva mrttikapatre toyam ksiptva pratapayet || satapto dravatam yati sarva varnesu nadravah | misraniyapramanena yatha varno na nasyati || 3.1.142-145. CE . brhatsamhita - 57 adhyaya 7 sloka . gomahisaja visanaih khararomana mahisavarmagavyaisca | nimbakapittharasaih saha vajrataro nama kalko'nyah || 118. sacurnasita pistam vajralepasamanvitam | adaya bhittikam limpedyavatsa slaksnatam vrajet || 3.1.147. 119. pasvaccitram vicitram ca tasyam bhittau likhedudhah | nanabhava ratairyuktam surekham varnakocitam || 3. 1. 150.

234 Sukraniti, (Chapter IV, Section 4) discusses materials for images and their effects, measurements, Vahanas, colours, details of Sapta, Assta, Nava, and Dasatala images of Gods and so on. Manasara discusses (in Chapter 51) materials of images, types of Citra, images of Gods, (in Chapter 54), Female Gods (in Chapter 57), images of sages and so on. Silparatna gives (Part 1, Chapter 46) definition and classification of Citra materials for painting, brushes, or lekhani and vajralepa, (Part II), iconography materials for images, eighteen kings of Lingamurtis, their measurements, rules of Talas, and Vahanas etc. King Bhoja's Samarangana-Sutradhara discusses (Chapter 34) sculpture and paintings, (in Chapter 7) Linga and so on. The Visnudharmottara Purana III Kanda contains (in Chapter 35) Citra-sutra, origin of painting, Nrtta and Citra measurements, the technique of painting (in Chapter 44), Pratimalaksana, image and their worship, image of Trimurti, Brahma, Visnu, Mahadeva, Agni, Varuna, Kubera, Yama, Grahas, Sarasvati, Laksmi, and so on. They were to be made on casts of wax, regarding which the Manasollasa gives some details. Various materials were prescribed for making images, not only from the viewpoint of stability or utility but also because Indians believed each material to be producing some good or bad results. Some are said to be giving moksa or liberation,

235 others only wealth and still others prosperity. The image is measured by the unit Paurusa 1.e., angulas. The image was to be normally 108 angulas in height. The Navatala became the most normal size of 120 images. measured in the Navatala system and all other female deities in the Dagatala system. And further he says, according to Dasatala system the whole length of the body is ten times of the face, while in the Navatala it is According to P.K.Acharya "Goddesses are nine times of the face; and so on." Therefore, Somesvara 121 gives more importance to tala system. Visnudharmottara Purana in clear words tells us that forming representation of objects by chiselling stone or by hollowing 122 metal, wood etc., is like Citra. 120. P.K. Acharya. 'Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad. p. 142. (J.K. Publishing House, Bhopal, 1979). P 142. 1 121. talamatraparinaho kartavyo silpakovidaih || 3.1344. 122. visnudharmottara purana - 43.32. siladastu lohesu pratimakaranam bhavet | anenaiva vidhanena yatha citramudahrtam || L

236 Visnu image In the Manasollasa Somesvara discusses twentyfour types of images of God(R) Visnu. First of all he tells "A deity named Visnu 123 us about Visnu or Jagannatha. does figure in the hymns of the Roveda, but does not occupy a very significant and important position in the "124 mythology of the Vedas. Somesvara discusses eight handed Visnu adorned with implements. 125 A similar view 126 It gives the deswe see also in the Matsya Purana. cription of the eight handed variety. The right hands should hold the sword, the mace, the arrow and the lotus, and the left hands should hold the couch, the bow, the disc and the shield. The image of Visnu with eight 123. navabhedaprabhinnanam sthanakanam vinirnayah | ayudhanam viparyasaccatursvapi ca bahusu || jagannathasya vaksyante caturvimsatimurtayah | pradaksinyena boddhavyascaturvimsatimurtayah || 3.1.726-727. 124. Kalpana S.Desai. Iconography of Visnu. (Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 1973), p. 1. 125. astabahoharamurterayudhani vadamyaham | nandakasca gada banah padamam daksinabahusu | praikhe| dhanustatha cakram khatakam vamabahusu || 301.733-734. 126. matsya purana - 258.7. khadgo gada sarah padma divyam daksinato hareh | dhanusca khatakam caiva samkhacakram ca vamatah ||

237 " hands holding the different emblems has been described by various texts. The Brhatsamhita states, "The image of Visnu can either be eight, four or two-handed. His chest bears the 'Srivatsa' mark and it should be adorned with the Kaustubha gem. He should be made as dark as the sesame flowers. He is clothed in a yellow garment and has a benign (gentle) expression on his face. He wears diadem ear-rings and has roundish neck, chest, shoulders and arms. Of the eight arms the right four carry the sword, the mace, the arrow and one hand is in the abhaya-mudra ; and the left four carry the bow, 127 the disc shield, and the conch. ut The eight-handed images of Visnu belonging to the early Gupta period have been preserved in the Mathura Museum. The lower portion of one of them has been lost, as also the left arms. Two of the right hands hold the 127. brhatsamhita 58.31-33. karyo'stabhujo bhagavamscaturbhujo dvibhuja eva va visnuh | srivatsa kitavaksah kaustubhamanibhusitoraskah || || atasikusumasyamah pitambara nivasanah prasannamukhah | kundalakiritadhari pinagalorah sthalamsabhujah || khadgagadasarapanirdaksinatah sartidah caturthakarah | vamakaresu ca karmukakhetakacakrni sankhaca || Cf. S. P. Tewari. Hindu Iconography. (Agamkala Prakashan, New Delhi, 1979), pp.60-75.

238 sword and the arrow and the other arm, which is stretched across the chest seems to hold the lance. The other image is also mulcilated and hence all the emblems are not clear. The right hands hold the sword, the arrow, the mace or the noose and an unidentifiable object. The only extent left hand holds the conch. 128 129 In Somesvara tells us about tala system and Dasatala as well as Saptatala images. On the basis of tala . he describes Narasimha, Trivikrama and vamana. 'Indian Art', V.S.Agrawala says, "Trivikrama, the three steps of Visnu was a Vedic motif transferred to the Puranic legend of Vamana and Virat, equally a theme of 128. Kalpana S. Desai. op. Cit. p.15. 129. narasimhakrtim vaksye raudra simhamukhaksanam | bhujastakasamayuktam stambhapatana || hiranyakasitum daityam darayantim nakhankuraih | urvopari vinyasya khadgakhetakadharinim | tasyantramalam niskrsya bahuyugmena bibhratim | akaram purusasyaiva dharayantim manoharam || 3.1.742-7440 tatha trivikramam vaksye vamapadena medinim | akramantam dvitiyena sakalyena nabhasthalam ||| 3.1.751. CE. devatamurti-prakaranam - 5.45-46. vikatasya tu vikrta nrsimhamukhalanchana | pasakusagadacakranyesamaikena lanchita || narasimhi bhavenmudra bhogamoksapradayika | darsanannasyate papam braddamahatyam vyapohati ||

239 art as poetry. It is the symbol of triple motion, viz., centripetal and centrifugal and the principle of rest abiding in the centre. Movement is essential for life. It is the same as time whose dynamism is pushing the worlds ahead. Life is governed by the three steps of past, present and future and each unit of time both big and small has these three divisions visualised as the process of growth. By this irresistable process the dwarf (Vamana) becomes the giant (Virat). Where • life functions growth is inevitable, typified as the presence of Trivikrama-Visnu. #130 Vamana image I The iconography of Vamana or the dwarfish form is simple but the descriptions given in the Sanskrit texts The image of Vamana shows him either as a are varied. mendicant or a Brahmacarin. The only emblem held by Vamana according to the Visnudharmottara Purana is the 131 staff. "The God Vamana should have crooked limbs, 130. V.S.Agrawala. Op.Cit., p.50. 131. visnudharmottara purana 85.54. I kartavyo vamato devah sankataigatriparvabhih | pinagamtrasca kartavyo dandi cadhyayanodyatah ||

240 and a fat body. He carries the staff and is engaged in studies. His colour should be dark like the durva grass and he should wear an antelope skin. 132 It In Silparatna and 133 · Devatamurtiprakarana there is the same view about vamana. There is no difference in Somesvara's Manasollasa. "The figure of Vamana should be with the Sikha and the Yajnopavita the indications of a brahmacarin or a mendicant. He should hold the umbrella and the Kamandalu in 134 his hands." According to Agnipuranal "The staff and umbrella are his emblems. The figure of Vamana may be four-handed also." This survey makes it amply clear that Vamana, like the Varaha and Narasimha incarnation, must have been much worshipped by the people right from the Gupta period. Though no shrine dedicated to Vamana has come to light > 132. silparatna 25, 111, 112. devatamurti prakarana 5.71. krsnajinopavitah syacchatri dhrtakamandaluh | kundali sikhaya yuktah kubjakari manoharah || 133. krsnajinopaviti syacchtri dhrtakamandaluh | || kundali sikhya yuktah kubjakari manoharah || 3.1.735. 1340 agnipurana 41.5. chatri dandi vamanah syadathava syaccaturbhujah | 1

Theres a Vari 4 temple is 241 kamadio so far, it is a possibility that cannot be ruled out. But inspite of his important position in the field of religion, Vamana does not seem to have formed a cult which could have been reflected by the elaborate iconographical forms in the following periods. Somesvara discusses srirama, Varaha and Nryaraha. - 135 The Sanskrit sources describe some other forms of Varaha which, however, have not been sculpturally represented 136 in North India. The Skanda Purana describes "the image of Varaha, having four hands, two of which hold conch and the disc and the other two are in the Abhaya and the Varadamudra." Though no such image has come 135. sriramasca varahasca dasatalavudahrtau | ramastu dvibhujo lekhyah saracapadharo vibhuh || navaraham pravaksyami sukarasyena sobhitam | gadapadmadharam dhatrim damstragrena samuddhatam || bibhranam kurpare vame vismayotphullalocanam | nilotpaladharam devimuparistatprakalpayet | daksinam katisamstham ca bahum tasya prakalpayet | kurmaprsthe padam caikamanyannagendramurdhani || 3.1.737-740. Cf. devatamurti prakarana - 5.72•' ramastu dvibhujo ramyah saracapadharah prabhuh | 136. skandapurana 2. vaisnavakanda vyamkatesvaramahatmya - - caturbahumudaragam varaha vadanam subham | samkhyakabhayavaranvibhanam purusottamam || " - 1.18.

" 242 to light from Northern India, this form is not unknown 137 in the South. Manasollasa further tells us about Brahma, Mahadeva 138 and Ardha-narisvara. 139 V.S.Agrawala says about Ardhanarisvara, "Half-male and half-female, viz., two conjoint portions of a single egg is the biological pattern of life. The Veda speaks of it as man and woman (tvam stri tvam puman). Each woman is half-man and each man is half-woman. This is the nature of "Ardha-narisvara." It may be pointed out here that composite form of Agni and Soma, is graphically depicted in art from the Kushana period onwards. Somesvara describes the preparation 140 137. Kalpana S.Desai. Op.cit. p.78. 138. strastaram sarvalokanam brahmanam parikalpayet mahadevam pravaksyami yatha lekhyasya bhittisu || muktarkaramasankasastaptasvarnanibho'pi va | unnatamso mahabahuh kamalayatanalocanah || 3.1.759-760. Cf. S. P.Tewari. Op.Cit. pp. 12-59. 139. astabahermahesasya na syatam khadgakhetako | ardhanarisvaro rudrah kathyate laksananvitah || 140. V.S.Agrawal, Op.cit. pp. 48-49. +

243 of the idols of Uma - Mahesvara, Hari - hara, swami Karttikeya, 141 Ganesa, Ka11 Katyayani, 142 Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirrti, Varuna, vayu, Kubera, isana, Matrkas, Sri, Nagas, Daityas, Ksetrapala, Kamadeva, and Navagrahas. Very few texts on iconography and religion describe the Harihara image. A complete description of Harihara is however found in the Matsya Purana. 143 In the image the left side is occupied by Madhava (Visnu) and the right side by Siva. Both the arms of Visnu are adorned with diamond bracelets and he holds the conch shell and 141. vinayakasya vaksyami murtim citropayoginim | gajavaktram trinetrangam caturbahum mahodaram || 3.1.799. 1 42. tatha katyayanim devim sivanarayanatmikam | bahubhirdasabhiryuktam jatamukutamanditam || locanatrayasamyuktamardhendukrtasekharam| atasipuspasacchayamindivaradaleksanam || pinonnatakucabhogam tanumadhyena sobhitam | tribhagisthana- samsthanam mahisasuramardinim || 3. 1.803-805. 143. matsya purana 26 c - 260.22-26. vamardhe madhavam vidyat daksine sulapaninam | bahudvayam ca krsnasya manikeyurabhusitam || samkhacakradharam santamaraktamguli viprabham | cakrasthane gadam vapi panau dadyad gadabhrtah || samkham caivetare dadyatkadadyartham bhusanojjvalam | pitavastraparidhanam caranam manibhusanam || bhujamgaharavalayam varadam daksinamkaram | vyalopavitasamyuktam katyartham krttivasasam || maniratnaisca samyuktam padam nagavibhusitam | sivanarayanasyaiva kalpayedrupamuttamam ||

7. 244 disc or mace, wears a yellow garment and is fully ornamented. The right half of the head wears Jatamukuta and He wears a serpent braceis adorned by the crescent. lect on his right arm. One of the right hands is held in the Varada-mudra and the other holds a trident. His Yajhopavita consists of serpents and the lower garment is made up of skin. The Devatamurti prakarana also gives almost the same description of the Siva-narayana 144 image. 'It is surprising that it describes separately the Harihara image which does not differ much from the 145 Siva-Narayana image. The Calukyas of Kalyana constructed many temples in Karnataka. Some of them are Visvesvara temple in Lakkundi, Mahadeva temple in Ittagi, Mallikarjuna temple in Kurvatti and so on. And some temples are in Gadag, 144. Devatamurti Prakarana, VI. 35.41. (Devatamurti prakarana and Rupamandana; ed. Sankhya Tirth U.M., Calcutta 1936). 145. devatamurti prakarana - 6.56-57. 1 'karyo hariharascapi daksinardhe sadasivah | atuty a gofon: randimtola: gutq || varam trisulam cakrabjadharino bahavah kramat | daksine vrsabhah parsve vame vihagaraditi || "

245 Dambala, Haveri, Belgaum etc. Mahadeva temple in Ittigi and Visvesvara temple in Lakkundi are the best sculpture art in the period of Calukyas. 146 Thus it can be seen that the Manasollasa contains a compendium of the then available knowledge relating to fine arts such as painting, sculpture, architecture and iconography. The qualities and qualifications of the artists, the materials used in art, and shapes as well as sizes of the images have been given here in detail. The Manasollasa throws a flood of light on the state of civilization that existed in those days.