4. Use, aim and Function of Art

The Manasollasa covers several subjects like dance, music, prosody, architecture and sculpture. Painting is also included therein. There is a great stress laid on the close relationship among fine arts like dance and music. The study of Vastusastra with reference to sculpture and painting is necessary not only because the text include these matters, but also because the Indians discerned a close relation between them, as well as between the Citrasastra, and the science of dancing and music. Buildings required decorations with sculptures and paintings. The figures in such sculptures or paintings were to be proportionate to the

210 buildings, where these were to be placed. Hence the canons of sculpture and painting were closely related to those of architecture. Moreover, these figures were to be artistically represented in different moods and attitudes. which also must have been proper and charming according to the existing ideas of dancing and music. Hence the Vastusastra declares the close connection of it with the science of Citra, dance and music. According to Visnudharmottara Purana "he who does not know properly the rules of Citra cannot discern the characteristics of 1 mages. Without a knowledge of the art of dancing, rules of painting are very difficult to be understood and dancing cannot be understood without a knowledge of 72 "in dancing as music (atodya)". Further it states, well as in Citra, imitation of the three worlds is 71. visnudharmottara purana - 2.2.4-6. 72. citrasutram na janati yastu samyannaradhipa | pratimalaksanam vetta na sakyam tena karhicit || vina tu nrtyasastrena citrasutram sudurvidam | jagato na kriya karya dvayorapi yato nrpa || atogham yo na janati tasya vrttam hi durvidam | atopena vina nrttam vidyate na kathamcana || visnudharmottara purana - 35.5-60 grahayamasa sa tada visvakarmanamacyutam | yatha nrtye, tatha citre trailokyanukrtih smrta || drstayasca tatha bhamva agopangani sarvasah | karasca ye mahanrtte purvokta nrpasattama ||

211 enjoined by tradition. The eyes and their expressions, limbs and hands have to be treated as in dance." Hence it is clear why the Vastusastra was related to and often included the Citrasastra as well as the science of dance and music. Painting was a product of human activity, which was used by man and his society for various purposes, both religious and secular. In traditional secular life in India, it was used for socio-cultural purposes, particularly for social and individual enjoyment and recreation. But whether for secular or religious purposes, it seems obvious that man found in art, an effective medium with which he could please his senses and sensibilities, afford some enjoyment and food for thought to his mind and some opportunity to recreate himself. Since it was so, he found out, besides, that art was also an effective instrument for teaching, influencing and conditioning the human mind and imagination. These were all very useful purposes indeed and any society of any given time and space would use whatever media were available to them to meet such purposes. According to Vasudeva S.Agrawala, "Indian art is a mirror of the thought, religion, philosophy, cults and culture of India. It is a rich commentary on the life of the

212 Indian people. How they lived, how they felt, what were their ideas about the Divine, how they worshipped and om what they created on the plane of matter is documented .73 in the creations of Indian art. 11 Bharata enjoined paintings to be made on the walls of the theatre.74 He shows his acquaintance with various colours and their variations in strength. The symbolism of colours as used in later Citrasastra was also known to him. He says that by colour and dress, a living being may transform his character, and supernatural beings or inanimate objects, such ash hill, sea, vehicles, implements etc., may be shown acting as living being or as men. The relation of various Rasas with different colours is 75 also described. Every colour had a presiding God which ku 73. V.S.Agrawala, Op.Cit. p.l. 74. bharatanatyasastra - 2.83-85. sudhakarma bahistasya vidhatavyam prayatnatah | bhittisvatha viliptasu parimrstasu sarvatah || samasu jatasobhasu citrakarma prayojayet | citrakarmani calaikhyah purusah strijanastatha || latabandhasca kartavyascaritam catmabhogajam | evam vikrstam kartavyam natyavesma - prayoktrbhih || 75. bharatanatyasastra 6.42-43. prayamo bhavati srrmgarah sito hasyah prakirtitah | kapotah karunascaiva rakto raudrah prakirtitah || gauro virastu vijneyah krsnascaiva bhayanakah | nilavarnastam bibhatsah pitascaivamdadbhutah smrtah || C

55 1 | 213 shows that the colour of the Gods as noted in the text of iconography was known to Bharata. According to Bharata, Somesvara also Gods should generally be of white colour. 76 gives importance to white colour, white dress etc. Bharata assigns different Rasas to the different diviniThese are some of the individual characters of ties. 'Gods. 77 78 Somesvara starts his painting section by describing nine storeyed buildings, for the royal family. Then various kinds of plasters used over walls and roofs are mentioned. They are of different types and white, black or red. Of the more substantial and artistic structures, 76. adaya mrttikam svetam vajralepena misrayet | tatha lepam prakurvita suskabhittau trivaratah || sankhacurnasita pistam vajralepasamanvitam | adaya bhittika limpedyavatsa slaksnatam vrajet || yattu nilagirau jatam svetam candrasamaprabham | naganamnaiva vikhyatam silayam paripesitam ||| 3. 1. 46-48. 77. bharatanatyasastra - 6.44-45. srmgari visnudevatyo hasyah pramathadaivatah | raudro sdradhidaivatyah karuno yamadevatah || bibhatsasya mahakalah kaladevo bhayanakah viro mahendradevah syadadadbhuto brahamadevatah || 78. ekabhume dvibhame va bhumitrayasamanvite | bhucatustaya samyukte pamcabhume'piva subhe || • saibhume saptabhume va tatha caivastabhumike | prasade navabhume va nivasedvasudhadhipah ' || 3.1.132-133.

214 វ the most important is the King's palace called Prasada. ☑ 79 Structures of other kinds are indicated by the words 'harmya', 'sabha', etc., each of which referred to a particular kind of structure. Fortified town or capitals were called 'Durga', and elaborate description of the fortification forms the major part of the chapters dealing with architectural matters. Ditches, ramparts and watch towers of different forms were the several features of Cateways of different forms adorned the fortification. entrance to a city or a palace. All buildings required decorations with sculptures and paintings, and figures in such sculptures or paintings were to be proportionate to the size of the building where these were to be placed. Hence the shapes and sizes of sculptures and paintings were closely related to those of architecture. 79. CE. silparatna 16.1. devadinam naranam ca yesu ramyataya ciram | Haifa a galalza graigreda Ildat: 11 Hindu architecture is the child of Vedic altar and therefore the formation of the word literally bears out this ancient tradition prakarsena asamantatsadanam ( sadanam va ) 5+3 T+ HTG sada - sadah (istikanamityarthah ) iti prasadah | Cf. D.N.Shukla, Op.Cit., p.174.

215 Here somesvara teils us Citrakara's qualifications. He says "A Citrakara should be capable, faithful, wise, 80 and brilliant in painting. Only such a person can do good paintings. Further, Somesvara describes as to what is good for the painting work. He says that the wall where the painting is to be drawn should be white, soft 81 and without any cracks etc. Then he explains the characteristics of good painting, the rules to be followed, preparing the wall for painting and preparation of brushes. He divides brushes into three kinds, namely Nalika, Vartika and Lekhani. Further, he sub-divides Lekhani 82 into three types, namely sthula, Madhya and suksma. Nalika brush is made of a reed, with point made of copper. Vartika, made of Kajjala mixed with rice-water and then hardened and pointed. And Lekhani brush is 1 : 80. pragalmairbhavakaistadvaijnaih suksmarekha visaradaih |, : vidhunnirmanakusalaih patralekhanakovidaih || 3.1. 139. 81. sudhaya nirmitam bhittim slaksnam ksatavivarjitam | laipayeccitrakarmartha lepadravyam pracaksyate || 3.1.143. Cf. G.K.Bhat. bharatanatya - mamjari (pune, 1975) prsta 26. sudhakarma bahistasya vidhatavyam prayatnatah | bhittisvatha viliptasu parimrstasu sarvatah || 63. 82. lekhani nama sa prokta sa caiva trividha bhavet | sthula madhya tatha suksma tathacitram viracyate || 3.1155. °

216 83 made of hair from the ear of a calf. Some of these were used in drawing the outline, others for colouring, and 84 some of them were used for shading. Varna-Samskara -_wqpm - (preparation of colours) also forms an important subject. Somesvara divides colours into two types; one is purecolour and the other is mixed colour. The material used in colouring also led to the classification of citra into Rasa Citra and Dhuli-Citra. Rasa Citra refers to paintings which are drawn with liquid colour. Colour was mixed with water or oil; this is quite clear from 86 the Manasollasa. Dhuli-Citra, on the other hand, is 87 painted with dry (powdered ) colour. 83. kanisthakaparinaham bhagadvayasamayatam | ghanavenu samudbhutam nalikam parikalpayet || tadagre tamrajam sanku yavamatram viniksipet tavanmatram bahih kuryattindunameritam budhaih || kajjalam bhaktasikthena mrditva karnikakrtim | vartim krtva taya lekhyam vartika nama sa bhavet || vatsakarnasamudbhutaromanyadaya yatnatah | tulikagre nyasettani laksabandhana - yogatah || 3.1.151-154• 84. sthulaya lepanam karyam tiryagahitaya tatha | ankanam madhyama kuryadagaparsvanivistaya || suksmaya ca taya suksmam lekham kurvita kovidah | agena citrako dhiman citravidyavisaradah || 3.1.156-157. 85. bhinnavarnesu rupesu bhinno varnah prayujyate | $ misravarnesu rupesu misro varnah prayujyate || 86. bhavacitram tadakhyatam citrakautukakarakam 3.1.164. sadravairvarnakairlekhyam rasacitram vicaksanaih || 3.1.942. 87. rasadhuligatam proktam manasollasapustake | ON nirmitam citralaksmedam citram locanaharakam || 3.1.9440

217 The Manasollasa refers to a class of painting called "Bhava-Citra and explains it as 'a painting which manifests Rasa, such as srigara etc. 88 Somesvara gives measurements for the Citras as follows: 8 Paramanu 8 Trasarenu 8 valagra 8 Liksa 8 yuka 8 Yava 2 Matra 3 Matra 4 Angula 3 Bhaga - - || || || 1 Trasarenu 1 valagra 1 Liksa 1 Yuka 1 Yava 1 Angula or Matra 1 Golaka or Kala 12 Kala 1 Bhaga 1 Vitasti, rala or Mukha 89 88. srmgaradiraso yatra darsanadeva gamyate | bhavacitram tadakhyatam citrakautukakarakam || 3.1.942. 89. tatra manam pravaksyami sarire nava talakam | paramanvadibhedena yathavocah (1) prajayate || paramanubhirastabhistrasarenurnigadyate | trasarenubhirastabhirvalagramabhidhiyate || valagairastabhirliksa ka liksastakam bhavet | yukastakam yavah prokto yavastakamathangulam || ekangulam bhavenmatra dve matre golakam kala | trimatramadhyardhakala bhagastu caturangulam | trayo bhaga vitastissyadvitastistala ucyate | talastuh mukhamakhyatam vyavaharaya kovidaih || 3.1.204-208.

ས 218 By the help of Tala Somesvara gives the rules and regulations of Citra. Further, Somesvara says that the godly mukha of the Citra to be sketched to the desired size, should be divided into three parts. At this stage, he has explained the meaning of Mukha as the part of the face streching from Kesa to hanu. The three parts together form the Dvadasangula corresponding to the size of the Citras concerned. 91 • Brahmasutra is the front position in which the distance between the central plumb line and the two Paksasutra i.e. side lines is six angulas on both sides. The whole body from head to foot is nine Talas in height. The face from Kesanta to Hanu = one tala. Griva = four Angulas Griva to Hrdaya = one tala Hrdaya to Nabhi = one tala Nabhi to Medhr one tala Uru = two talas, Janu Janu = four Angulas Jangha = two talas, Carana = two Angulas 10 . taladayamita jaड़dha caranavaturangulah | navatalamidam mana kosantam caranavadhi || 3.1.214. 91. daivatam yallikhedupam yavanmanamabhipsitam | vibhajedvadanam tasya tribhirbhagairvicaksanah || kesadradanaparyantam mukham taditi ca smrtam | syadvadasangulam cakram tattadrupasya manatah || 3.1.210-211. ( 1

1 219 Thus according to Brahmasutra the height of the body is nine Talas. The Mauli (crown of the head) is four 92 Angulas from the Kesanta. Further, Somesvara gives description of Citra or painting from the hair of head, to the toes. He takes one Pramana of the body and discusses the whole Citra. 93 Manasollasa refers to a class of Citra or mere sketch drawing which is drawn in a hurry, (Akasmika) without any 94 purpose and possess only an outline. This class of painting is also called by the author as 'Aviddha' as distinct from 'Viddha' paintings which are the real Citras and give a realistic representation. Thus Manasollasa classifies paintings into the 'Viddha' and 'Aviddha' ones, besides, Rasa and 'Dhuli', as already mentioned. ------- 95 The chapter on painting in Vatsyayana's Kamasutra, speaks 92. kesalasyopari proktam mastakam caturangulam | kesantanmaulirudvista sistairastadasangulaih || brahmasutrasya manena talamanam nirupitam || 93. vistarayamarekhabhirnamito rupatastatha | 3.1.215-216. karnapramanamakhyatamiti somamahibhuja || 3.1.290. 94. taccitram vidvamityahurvisvakarmadayo budhah | akasmike likhamiti yada tadddisca likhyate || 3.1.940. 95. vatsyayana kamasutra - 1.3.16. rupabhedah pramanani bhavalavanyayojanam | sadrsyam varnika bhaigam iti citram sadangakam ||

220 of Sadanga or six aspects of painting, but does not enumerate, far less explain, what these aspects were, evidently because these were well-known to all knowledgeable people and connoisseurs of the times. About five hundred years later one Yasodhara of Gujarat wrote a Jayamangala-tika on this important text, in which he enumerated the six aspects in the form of a Sloka, evidently for the benefit of his contemporaries, who may have forgotten a fairly old tradition. These six limbs were - (1) Rupabheda, G (2) Pramana, (3) Bhava, (4) Lavanya, (5) Sadriya and (6) Varnikabhanga. It will be easily observed that of these six, as many as four (1, 2, 5 and 6) are external qualities of the surface of painting; qualities that are objective and measurable. The other two, Bhava and Lavanya, are qualities or properties which are added (Yogyam), presumably by the artist and are hence subjective; the total implication of the Sloka being that the essence of a product of art is not so much in its external measurable qualities as in its feeling and grace which are imparted to it by the artist's creative imagination. A fine picture or painting (Citra) is described in the Visnudharmottara Puranain the following words: 96 96. visnudharmottara purana 43.21. hasativa ca madhurya sajiva iva drsyate | sasvasa iva yaccitram taccitram subhalaksanam || ||

221 "It is smiling sweet, it looks as if endowed with life. That is a good painting, which looks as if breathing." much effort. 97 A close analysis of the formal qualities would show that good many of them are some-what external, purely technical in character. The measurable excellence in these formal qualities depends on the technical adequacy, skill, efficiency and experience of the artist. Somesvara refers in Manasollasa to expert painters who have put in But, there are a few qualities which are of a subtler character and depend upon the nature and character of the creative imagination and intuitive vision of the art-experience of the artist, though the adequate articulation of this experience or otherwise is here too conditioned and determined by practice (Abhyasa) or experience. While (proper) position, articulation, differentiation of form, proportion, spacing, resemblance, or verisimilitude or reference, decrease and increase, or low and high or breaks and gradations in colour, for instance, are qualities which belong to the first category, grace (Lavanya), loveliness (Saundarya), mood (Bhava) feeling (Rasa), life movement (Chetana) etc., may be said to belong to the second. Another essential quality of 97. varnapuranadasca virane ca krtasramaih || 3.1.140.

222 a good painting is that of the judicious and artistic use of decrease and increase, or low and high etc., described variously in the Manasollasa as Ksayavrddhi, 98' natonnata, nimnonnata etc. All these traditions undoubtedly refer to the rise of the art of painting and sculpture in relation to religion. Drawings arose from the necessity of altar construction and figure-sculptures assumed the form of images of Gods. But at the same time, the traditions also indicate that the artist had other motives too in executing those paintings, namely to remove the sorrow of bad dreams, to place the divinity and to beautify the house. Hence we find that Indian art has not 99 "always been a purely religious one" as formely held by some scholars. We know from the Manasollasa (3.1.146-166) 98. sikhayah purvabhage tu kimcinnimnam bhaktatha || 3.1.247. tu nasamulasya sutrasya yavadvitaramantaram | yavamananantara goji nimna sa parikalpyate ||| 3.1.574. ksayavrddhipradesastu sutramanatsuniscitam | sacisthanagata vrttiridanim parikirtyate || 3.1.653. Cf. visnudharmottara purana - 43.19.29. nimnonnatavibhagam ca yah karoti sa citravit || sadrsyam ksayavrddhi ca gunastakamidam smrtam || 11 . visnudharmottara purana - 43.26. duhsvapnadarsanam hanti prinati grhadaivatam | na tu sunyamivabhati yatra citram pratisthitam ||

223 that pictures were made to embellish homes and palaces. The Visnudharmottara Purana says that the purpose of 101 Citra is to gain Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa. 100 Indians were not always averse to non-religious art. Literature refers to Citra-sala, or art-gallery, being an important feature of big cities. A king had to maintain such Citra-salas. Information about the construction of such Citra-salas is found in the third chapter of Manasollasa (3.1.1-70). The terracotta figures discovered at Mohenjodaro and other places, represent animals and birds and toy carts. The pottery-paintings consist of birds, fishes, creepers, and designs. Statues of men and women made of gold, silver, copper, iron or wax (Sikthaka ) are mentioned in the epics, puranas, and later literature. 102 100. prasade rucire tage sauvarnakalasanvite | nanavarnavicitradaye racanaparisobhite || 3.1.146. 101. visnudharmottara purana - 43.38. kalanam pravaram citram dharmakamarthamoksadam | mangalyam prathamam caitadgrhe yatra pratisthitam || 102. sikthakam tolayedadavacalagnam vicaksanah | ritya tamrena raupyena hemna va karayet tu tam || Cf visanudharmottara purana 43.32. siladarusu lohesu pratimakaranam bhavet | anenaiva vidhanena yatha citramudahrtam || 1.11.86. 1

224 Texts on Vastuvidya and Citravidya also reveal, that though they are now generally found in the religious books like the Agamas, Puranas and Tantras, originally they awere not solely used for the creation of religious art. We know from the history that the door-jambs of temples were to be decorated with figures of birds, trees, vases, human and animal couples, creepers, foliages, and lotuses. The compound walls of temples and Mandapas were adorned by Citra, figures or paintings of lions, tigers, swans, and dramatic scenes. The Toranas had to be sculptured over or painted with various pictures or figures of Vidyadharas, garlands, elephants, horses, men and women, Visnudharmottara Purana (Adhyaya 42) prescribes figures of women, dwarfs, generals, foot-soldiers, archers, wrestlers etc. Besides these, there were the natural objects like sea, forest, mountains, water, city markets, villages, battle-fields, roads, dawn and night, moon shining, rain falling and Somesvara in the Manasollasa discusses details about many things. He tells that there is no limit to things which can be described. so on. 103 103. asankhyatani sattvani sakyantainaiva bhasitum | 26 tattadrupanusarena lekhaniyani kovidaih || 3.1.939.

225 5 In Ramayana, Ramacandra's palace-gates are said to have been decorated with golden statues and Bharata's 104 camp set with jewelled figures here and there. In Lanka, Ravana's palace is described as containing many jewelled 105 statues of birds, serpents, horses and so on. The painted chambers are called 'Citragaras' which may be equivalent to the word 'Citrasala' in the epics. These paintings, therefore, proved the artistic development of the Indians, which culminated in the magnificent paintings in the Ajant Caves. The Manasollasa contains greater details about paintings and iconography than the other works. In the 104. ramayana 2.15.31-33. tato dadarsa ruciram kailasasikharaprabham | ramavesma sumantrastu prakravesma - samaprabham || mahakapatavihitam vitardi - satasobhitam | kancanapratimaikagra-manividumatoranam || saradabhadhanaprakhyam diptam mesnuhopamam | manibhirvaramalyanam sumahad bhiralamkrtam || 105. tadeva sundarakanda 7 sargah 12 - 140 • krtasca vaiduryamaya vihaga rupyapravalaisca tatha vihagah | citrasca nanavasubhirbhujaga jatyanurupasturagah susubhangah || pravalaja mbunadapuspapaksah salilamavarjitajihmapaksah | kamasya saksadiva bhanti paksah krta vihangah sumukhah supaksah || babhuva devi ca krta suhasta laksmi tatha padimani padmahasta | itiva tadgrhamabhigamya sobhanam savismayo nagamiva cassobhanam ||

226 rules about the materials and the colours, the author ' 106 gives more freedom to the artists by saying that the paintings should be reasonable, of good taste, befitting, and pleasant to the eyes on account of their beautiful colours. He says "Citram laksana-samyuktam". Subjects to be depicted in painting or sculpture or those prohibited are also mentioned herein. Citras are productive of good or bad results if they do or do not conform to the rules. The subject of painting may be Gods, men, objects of nature, animals and anything that can be ascertained by the ears, eyes, or the mind. The painting might be of things seen or remembered or even of imaginary ones. Agrawala says: "The Supreme value of art consists in the fact that it is a bridge between the two worlds of mind and matter both invested 11107 After dealing with the various possible with beauty. positions and postures, the author Somesvara says: "An intelligent artist shall ascertain in his mind the - 108 ' befitting Bhava, Vyapara, Pramana and so on. 106. citram laksanasamyuktam lekhayitva mahipatih || 3.1.945. 107. V.S.Agrawala. Op.cit. p.VIII. 108. nanabhavaratairyuktam surekham varnakocitam || 13.1.150. cintayettatpramanam taddhyatam bhitau nivesayet 1 3.1.158. akaralaksanam vaksye pramanena yathakramam || 3.1.596.

227 • One should also bear in mind that the artist in India was hereditarily a craft-man and a member of an art or craft-guild, more often than not a painter, sculptor, architect, modeller-caster and some times even a scribe or inscriber, all in one and at the same time. Besides, he did not usually work singly as an individual but as a member of a team under the general guidance and supervision of a chief, the team consisting not unoften of the members of his own family, besides others, all working, may be on the same assignment; the chief laying down the compositional scheme and the outlines, one member filling in the colour, another working out the details, still another responsible for the decorations and so on, according to their respective specialities, whenever and wherever there was scope for such specialities.