3. Art in Vastuvidya or Architecture

Vastu is primarily the planned site of the building. As a rule its shape is square which is the fundamental Its full name is Vastuform of Hindu architecture. 27 Purusa-mandala. Vastu, Purusa and Mandala are equally important and significant. The indentity of Vastu with Purusa is symbolic and of metaphysical importance. It is more significant in case of temple-architecture, where 'Mandala the image of the supernal or cosmic man, the Purusa is congruous and identical to the planned site. denotes any closed polygon. The square, which is the essential form of Vastu Purusa, can be converted into a triangle, hexagon, octagon and circle of equal area and retain its symbolism. It is in this way, that the various types of the Vastumandala are enumerated in Vastu-sastra. 28 26. vrksaparvatasastradi padathaisu yathocitah | bhinnavarnah prayoktavyah citrakaiscitrakarmani || 3.1.176. 27. D.N.Shukla. Vastu-sastra Vol. I (Punjab University, Chandigarh, 1960), p.185. 28. Cf. V.S.Agrawala, Op.Cit. pp.41-43.

193 The importance of the Roveda as the earliest available record of Indian civilisation is universally admitted. Though the secular hymns are very few in number, the incidental references are sufficiently numerous to afford material for a good picture of the social condition in ancient India. The study of Rgveda is, therefore essential for a proper understanding of ancient Indian art, architecture, all vidyas and kalas. The very first point to be noted is that architecture had already come to be closely associated with religion and the building of a structure was recognised as a religious act. The Vastu or the site of a building is conceived as being presided over by a diety called 1 Vastospati', invocation to whom must have been necessary whenever a new house was built. Two hymns in the seventh Mandala deal entirely with invocation to that God, 29 where he is prayed for an excellent abode free from disease and full of wealth and cattle. Vastospati is again identified in the Rgveda with Tvastr, the carpenter Later silpa literature describes 'Tvastr' of the Gods. 30 29. agveda 7.54-55. 30. rrgveda - 5.41.8. abhi vo arce posyavato nrnvastospatim tvastaram raranah | 1 dhanya sajosa dhisana namobhirvanasyatimrosadhi raya ese

1 194 as the master architect. Visvakarma, famous in later literature as the architect of the Gods, is not referred to in the Rgveda as having any special connection with house building. He is invoked as the creator of the 31 universe as a whole, and it is quite natural to suppose that the later tradition about Visvakarma had its origin in the Rgvedic verses. Thus according to a tradition mentioned in Manasollasa Visvakarma, Maya, Matsya and 32 Pingala are the names of those who are well-versed in architecture. Somesvara tells about the starting of the construction of a building with reference to Astrology. First of all, he speaks about the months. If a person wants to build a house, he should start constructing it in the months of vaisakha, Phalguna, Margasarsa, Karttaka and sravana. 33 Then Somesvara informs us about the 31. rgveda - 10.6.81-82. 32. visvakarmamatenapi mayasastranusaratah | matsyaproktavidhanena pingalamatamanatah || kalitena pramanena purusarthacatustayam | karayed devatagaram mathan bhaktya mahipatih || 1. 11.86-87. 33. vaisakha phalgune maghe kartike sravane tatha | suklapaksa grhan kuryat sarvakamaphalapradana | 30 1.50 || •

1 195 fortnights, stars, days and so on, which are auspicious. 34 Somesvara describes the scientific system of collection and classification of different kinds of wood used in constructing different kinds of structures or different parts of the same structure. This appears to have been established on a practical basis. IC "The architect on an auspicious day enters a forest for selection of trees, and decide the wood of which trees is to be used for building purposes. 35 The trees to be avoided are those with hollows, entwined with 36 creepers, eaten by worms, touched by fire, fallen by wind and broken by elephants. The trees which have nests of birds in them, which are near hermitages, which are watered with jars i.e., artificially watered, and which are the abodes of sattvas should also be avoided. One should be careful to avoid the trees growing in a 37 cemetry or near temple, or an anti-hill, single trees C 34. adityam maigalam tyaktva sarve varassubhavahah | grhakarmani sasyante vastuvidya visaradaih || 3.1.5. 35. dhanistadini samtyajya pamcaksini prayatnatah | subhanaksatrayoge ca tarun chindyacchubhavahan || 3.1.16. Cf. rgveda - 3.8.6 36. dantidantahatam caiva vidyutpatanipiditam || 3.1.17. 37. svayam suskam ca bhagnam ca vakum devalayodbhavam || 3.1.18.

196 of a garden, trees indicating boundaries and trees growing by the side of a road." Somesvara tells: the particular trees to be avoided are Nipa, Vibhitaka, Nimba 38 etc. (3.1.15-22). The wood, which is not hard is not useful in the construction of the buildings. 40 39 Visnudharmottara Purana also tells that the Vibhitaka tree is avoided for the construction of the buildings, and temples. The trees which are recommended are Saka, sala, Mayuka, Balamajja, Candana, Panasa etc. was obviously the result of long experience. 41 This The elaborate rules which had to be observed and the ceremonials which had to be performed while going to the forest to select the necessary woods are set forth in detail in 42 the vastu section of the Matsya Purana also. 38. nipam vibhitakam nimbam slesmatakamahiruham || 2. 1. 19. 39. asaramschakhinassarvan varjayedgrhakarmani | chinnam ca yannipatitam yamyapasvimayordisoh || 3.1.20. 40. visnudharmottara purana - 89.8. anam ca puspakam caiva kapittham ca vibhitakam | varjayedvetasam caiva ye caramasthita dumah || 41. sakasalamayukam ca balamajjam sacandanam | panarsa devadarum ca samsanti subhakarmani || 3. 1. 21. 42. Matsya Purana, Chapter 257.

197 The structure of a palace rests mainly on pillars. Pillars are It was the basic requirement of a palace. described as being made not only of wood but also of stone. This is mostly in the temples. Here we get reliable evidence to show that stone was used in some parts of ancient Indian structures. But the existence of buildings made entirely of stone cannot be safely inferred from it. Stone was easily available and was freely used for many purposes. In Manasollasa, palaces are divided according to the number of stambhas. Here Somesvara mentions that 43 Catuska is a structure consisting of four pillars or stambhas. The structure next to Catuska is the alinda 44 and next to it is the Sala. The Sala is followed by an alinda and the latter is again followed by the sala. Extension in this particular order is necessary for the 45 king's palace. Somesvara mentions a few types of 43. - nrpagehani vaksyami stambhasankhyapramanatah | catuskabhedasalabhiscaturbhadrairmanoharaih || 3.1.29. CE.gveda 1.34.2,`8.41:10, 9.44.4, 111.5. 44. catvaro madhyamah stambha yatra tatsyaccatuskakam | tasmadvahiralindam syacchala syattadanantaram || 45. alindam ca punah sala kramenaivam pravardhate | yavatkartumatitam syad grham narapateh subham || 3. 1.32. 3.1.31.

198 palaces which are suitable for royal enjoyment, viz. (1) Prthivijaya, (2) Muktakona, (3) sarvatobhadra, and (4) Srivatsa He adds that there are innumerable types of such houses. 46 Prthvijaya The Prthvijaya type of palace has hundred pillars in the middle. The structure (named Bhadra contains twenty eight stambhas and thus the caturbhadra consists of one hundred and twelve stambhas. There are nine 47 konas on one side and thus thirtysix konas in all. ----Muktakona The Muktakona type of palace contains hundred and forty four stambhas in the middle. It has forty pillars in the Bhadra and hence one hundred and sixty pillars in the Catur-bhadra. It has eleven konas on one side -- 46. evamadinyanantani gehani dharanibhujam | kiyatyapi manojnani pranitani yathakramam || 3.1.43. 47. prthvijayam grham karya dasabhagam vicaksanaih | madhye stambhavatam tasya bhadre'stavimsatistatha || caturbhadresu ca satam stambhanam dvadasadhikam | navakona vidigdesa syuh sattrimsaccatursvapi || 3.1.29 - 30.

199 and thus forty four konas in all. 48 Sarvatobhadra It contains one hundred and ninety six stambhas in the middle. The Bhadra structure consists of forty stambhas and thus the Caturbhadra contains one hundred and sixty stambhas. It has thirteen konas on one side 49 and thus fifty two konas in all. DE Srivatsa It contains sixty four stambhas in the middle. It has eighteen stambhas in the Bhadra and hence seventy two stambhas in the Caturbhadra. It has seven konas on -●- 50 one side and thus twenty eight konas in all. ------ 48. namna tu muktakona ye tatkaryam ravibhagatah | madhyastambhatam sarddham sadbhirnsana nirupitah || catvarimsattatha stambha bhadre bhane nirupitah | satam sastacadhikam te syupracaturbhadresu sankhyaya || ekadasa tatha 'kona vidisam vidisam prati | caturvisettatha trimsaccata srsvapi sakhyaya ||| 3. 1. 35-37. 49. kathyate sarvatobhadram manubhagairvibhajitam | madhyastambha bhavantyasya sannavatyadhikam satam || catvarimsaccaturbhadre stambha evam nirupitah | evam catursu bhadresu satam sastistathadhikam || konastasya vidhatavyastrayodasamita budhaih | samantadvarnitah kona dvipancasadbhavanti te || 3.1.38-40. 50. srivatsamastabhagam syaccatuhsastih sumadhyamah | tasya stambhah prayoktavya bhadre'stadasasakhyaya || catursvadhi ca bhadresu dvisaptatirudahrtah | saptakona h samantacca dvigunah manusakhyaya 11 301.41- 42.

200 1 51 The doors formed an important feature of the houses as is evident from the special worship offered to them. The strength of the door was a matter of special observation and often a good object of comparison indicating Somesvara divides houses on stability and strength. 52 the basis of doors and court-yards (Alinda ) and the gives names according to their construction. 53 Somesvara describes a palace which is the best for a king. Where there are doors on all sides, the house is called Sarvatobhadra. This is the best house. If there is no door in the western direction, it is called Nandyavarta. there is no door in the south, that is Vardhamana. If there is no door in the east, it is called Svastika. there is no door in the North, it is called Rucika. 1 54 If IE 51. Cf. D.N. Shukla, Op. cit. p. 175. 52. rgveda - 1.51.14. - indrau aprayi sudhyo nireke pajresu stoma duyau na yupah | asvayurgavyu rathayurvasuyurindra indrayah ksayati prayatna || 53. vaksami bhavanam rajnam namalaksanasamyutam | 1 alindakaiscatudvaraiिscatussalamudahrtam || 3.1.46. 54. sarvatobhadra namaitannrpanam sasyate grham | nandyavarta tathakhyatam pascime dvaravarjitam || vardhamanam tathakhyatam daksinadvara varjitam | svastikam tadbhavennamna purvadvara . vivarjitam || uttaradvara hinam ceducikam tadbhavedgrham | sarvatobhadranamayam catussalamudiritam || 3.1.47-49. hai

201 In the Rgveda the door is called dvar, dura, and 55 so on. In one hymn doors are described as "Virata, Samrat, Vibhvi, Prabhvi, Bahvi and Bhuyasi, "meaning "variously and perfectly radiant, manifold, excellent, " many and numerous. From the Rgvedic period, Indians began to develop several architectural traditions, which were most intimately associated with religion. The Atharvaveda contains two hymns recited during the building of house and many architectural terms have been 56 incidentally used in it. Regulations regarding the It was position of the doors of a house are here found in Vedic literature for the first time. Special importance was attached to the position of a door in the house. supposed that different positions affected the fortunes. A certain position was considered beneficial, and a different position was considered harmful. Thus one who is desirous of fame or strength should build the house with its doors to the east, one who is desirous of children or of cattle, with its door to the north, and one desirous of everything with its door to the south. 55. rgveda 1.188.5. virat samakibhvih prabhvirbavhisca bhuyasisca yah | dura ghrtanyaksaran || || 56. Atharvaveda. III. 12; IX.3.

202 Let him not build a house with its door to the west. 57 The later silpasastra elaborated the regulations relating to the position of a door, the nucleus of which may be noticed in the Grhya sutras. Thus the Grhya Sutras contain many matters which are of great importance for the architectural history of India. Somesvara mentions sixteen types of houses. The first and good variety is vijaya. This house seems to be the main type of which the remaining fifteen are the variations. The houses are defined on the basis of the court-yard (Alinda) measure. The measurement in terms of Alinda is in relation to the measurement of the whole house. An idea of the construction of a house may be obtained from several references in the sala-sukta of the Atharvaveda (9.3.3). The first fact is that timber was used in the construction of houses of big dimensions. This was the material of which the ideal house of 58 57. gobhila-grhya-sutra 4.7.12° tatravasanam pragudvaram yasaskami balakamah kurvitodagudvaram putrapasukamo, daksinadvaram sarvakami | na pratyagrdvaram kurvita || Cf. kasyapasilpam . trtiyah patalah 58. atharva veda 9.3.11. yastva sale nimimaya sa jabhara vanaspatin |

203 59 Paramesthi Prajapati was made. Attached to the house in the first court were also the broad spaces for cows and horses, both of whom formed an essential part of the domestic economy in Vedic times (Av.3.12.12, 9.3.13). A house is compared to a beautiful bride, and the same is still current in the saying that the decoration of 61 a house is similar to that of a bride. 60 We can say that the lay-out of an Aryan house is quite clear. It is divided into three portions, viz., the first court for domestic animals, the second for the men and the third for the women's apartments; the same is in the epic palaces of three courts called Trikaksa. Subsequently the number of courts increased upto seven (sapta-kaksa) as mentioned in the Harsa carita. 62 59. V.S.Agrawal. Op.Cit. p.43. 60. atharva veda - 9.3.24. vadhumava॑te॒sale 61. Cf. Rajammal P.Devadas. Text Book of Home Science. (Government of India, New Delhi, 1959) pp.211-274. 62. V.S.Agrawala, Op. Cit. p.45. •

204 Somesvara describes different houses for dwelling. The following table shows the different names given to the houses by Somesvara on the basis of the position of court-yards (Alinda) surrounding them. S.No. Names given to the houses Position of the court-yards or Alind 1 No Court-yard 2 East 3 South 4 West 5 North East and South DHRVA DHANYAKA JAYA KHARA DURMUKHA NANDA 6 10 7 West and South DHANYA 00 8 East and North KRURA 9 North and West KSAYA 10 East and West KANTA 11 South and North SUPAKSA 12 No court-yard in the direction of North SUMUKHA 13 No court-yard in the direction of West DHANADA 14 No court-yard in the direction of South AKRANTA 15 No court-yard in the direction of East VIPULA 16 Court-yards on all sides VIJAYA

N 5 Dhrva. Durmukha. 03 Dhanyaka Nanda. 3 Jaya 4 Dhanya. 8 Khara. Krura.

13 Ksaya. 10 Dhanada. 14 Kanta. 11 Akranta. 15 Supksa. 12 Vipula. 16 Sumukha. Vijaya.

Sarvatobhadra. Nandyavarta. Vardhamana. Svastika. Rucika.

205 Somesvara states that the fruits gained by the residents are according to the names of the houses. 63 a Vista Thus the section on Rajabhavana-Laksana ( 3.1.46-78) opens before aus a vision of varieties of palaces and houses. Even though, the picture in many details is vague, we have much definite information from which it will be possible to understand the progress of a palace architecture in the age of Somesvara. Much of this 63. kridartham tannivasartham bhogartham ca prasasyate | dhruvam hinamalindena purvalindram tu dhanyakam || jayah syaddaksina lindam pascalindam kharam bhavet | durmukham cottara lindemakalinde caturgrham || dhanyam jayasca subhadam nindite kharadurmukha | purvadaksinato'lindam nandamityabhidhiyate || dhanyam pascimato'lindamanyairva samudahrtam | purvadigbhagato'lindam grham kuram nigadyate || pascimottarato'lindam cayamityabhidhiyate | purvapascimato'lindam kantam namna nigadyate || daksinottarato'lindam supaksam parivaksyate | uttara lindahinam yatsumukham tatprakirtitam || pascimalindato hinam dhanadam gehamucyate | daksina lindahinam yadakrantam tadudahrtam || purvalindavihinam yadvipulam parikirtyata | sarvato'lindasamyuktam vijayam gehamuttamam || evam sodasa gehani kathitani parisphutam | - yathanama phalam tesujneyam tatra nivasinam || 3.1.62-70

206 architecture has disappeared in course of time. Still it will be worth while for a scholar of art and archaeology to study the surviving monuments? in the country in the light of the information derived from Somesvara's Manasollasa. Then comes santikarma of new buildings. Grhapati- "Lord of house" was accompanied by many other Gods such as Agni, soma, Maruts, surya, vayu, Gandharva, Rudra and so on. The invocation of these Gods was undoubtedly necessary at the time of a special ceremony performed before entering a new house. These ceremonials in connection with building operations were elaborate. And, they are performed even at the present day, when the same old Rgvedic verses are recited. These ceremonials are described in detail in Manasollasa (3.1.78-124) 64 64. ekasitipadopete mandale pujayetsuranam | somesvaranrpaproktavastupaddhatimargatah || 3. 1.78, tatra pujyan suran vaksye padasakhyavyasthitan | ekapadyam dvipadyam ca tripaksam navapadyakam || 3.1.81. apya isanakona syat savitre vaddinakonagah || jayo nirrtikonasthi stro vayavyakonagah 11 3.1.87. tatra homah prakartavyah samibhih ksirajatibhih | palasi bhissamidbhirva kusairdurvabhireva va ||| 3.1.94. pratisamvatsaram yastu vidhina'nena parthivah | || sarvamayatane kuryatsa sukham labhate dhruvam || 3.1.124.

207 and in all other works on architecture, the Puranas and other cognate works. In Manasollasa, Somesvara prescribes the measurement 65 66 of the buildings of eight types. These are (1) Dhvaja, (2) Dhuma, (3) Sinha, (4) sarameya, (5) Vxsa, (6) Khara, (7) samaja and (8) vayasa. In the Rgveda, one mantra' has been explained by sayana as referring to the system of selecting a piece of land slope towards the east. The Gobhila Grhya sutra 67 while laying down rules for ' the selection of a site directs thus: "Let him select the site for building his house on even ground on which the waters flow off to the east or north. " We see this point of view, in the Manasollasa which mentions only the flowing water but not the direction which is taken 65. eko dhvaji dvayam dhumah trikassimhah prakirtitah | catuskassarameyastu pamcako vrsa ucyate || sasthah kharo vinirdistah saptamassamajo bhavet | astamo vayasah proktah ayamanavinirnayah || 3.1.24-25. 66. rgveda- 2.15.3. sadameva praco vi mimaya manairvajrena khanyatrnannadinam | vrthasrjatpathirbhidardhiyayaih somasya ta mada indrascakara || 67. gobhila grahaya sutra - 4.7.2. pracya udicyo va yatrapah pravarterannaksirinyom kantaka akatuka yatrausadhayah syuh || Cf. D.N.Shukla, Op.Cit. p.177.

208 for granted. 68 In Yuktikalpataru, Bhoja lays down the 69 selection of site for the construction of buildings. It is in the Grhya sutra that we first meet with several principles of Indian architecture which gradually developed into elaborate science of architecture or the Vastuvidya. The Sankhayana Grhya Sutra 70 describes in three chapters the ceremonials to be performed by a man when he builds a new house. These ceremonials furnish important data for the proper understanding of Indian architectural principles. It is to be noted that the centre It was there of the ground was held in high reverence. that the first necessary rites were to be performed and the Chief Post fixed. We find another important conclusion drawn from the worship offered to various posts of 68. sudhadhvalite ramye vastulaksanasamyute | jalamargekrtodyote kvapi sarvaprakasane ||| 3. 1. 134. 69. bhojasya yuktikalpataruh, nitiyuktih 176. nadisamasanasailanam vanasya nikate tatha | na vastukarma kurvita na dvandva-nagarantayoh || 70. sankhayana grhya sutra 3.2. EE. Cf.D.N.Shukla, Op.Cit pp. 195-96

ཟ་ 209 the buildings such as the posts, the pinnacle, the door jambs, the roof and the foundation. These were to be touched and each had a symbolical meaning attached to it. This shows that from very early times architectural constructions had been invested with symbolical and mystic significance, each representing a particular aspect or condition of the human society. These traditions must have been handed over from generation to generation, and even when the original significance had been forgotten, the structures deviated very little from their original forms.