1. Introduction to the ancient Indian science of Government

The Manasollasa mentions different terms for the science of Government, which technically is known as Dandaniti. A perusal of these terms reveals significant meanings which show the gradual development of this science for centuries during which the texts of Dandaniti were composed. Usually it refers to the term Rajadharma for the science of Government. Raja means the King or Master, and Dharma stands for his duties and responsibilities to the people and the State. Hence, the science dealing with the king's duties is rightly termed Rajadharma. Raja or the king is an inevitable agency for the welfare of the people, who in the remote past had realised his importance for the protection of their social and economic institutions. These were unsafe without a ruling authority to hold and inflict the Danda upon those who did not follow the rules of law. A king is the root cause of all success and happiness and creates spiritual atmosphere by protecting the Dharma. Raja is the person, who causes the development of arts and culture in his kingdom, so he is essential for all-round development of the people. instruments in

78 Somesvara throws a flood of light on the contemporary social ideals. The administration of social justice is one of the most important functions to be discharged by the State. The Danda is a coercive but an effective power given to the king for regulating the life of the subjects. The State is not an idle institution; it is not an onlooker of on the happenings, but is a forceful and living institution to correct those persons who do not follow the rules of conduct, either established by tradition or prescribed by scriptures. The Manasollasa regards Dharma as the root of the State; hence the enforcement of law or Danda is essential 1 for its existence. The Maryada or moral law is well established in society when the king controls the evils, and shows compassion towards the good ones. The duties 2 1. samadinam prayoktaramasaktam manvate dvisah | tasmad dandam prayumjita dando hi vasakrnnrnam || 2.20.1032. kamandakiya nitisara, dvitiya sarga - dandanitiryada samyanetaramadhitisthati | tada vidyavidah sesa vidyah samyagupasate || mahabharata, aranyaka parva 5.4. trivarno'yam dharmamulo narendra rajyam cedam dharmamulam vadanti | dharme rajanvartamanah svasaktya putransarvanpahi kuntisutamsca || 2. mahabharata, aranyaka parva 149.48. buddhya supratipannesu kuryatsadhuparigraham | vigraham capyasistesu nirmaryadisu karayet ||

79 of the four Asramas or orders were duly assigned by tradition. A Brahmana was to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices, make others perform the same and receive gifts. A Ksatriya was to study the Vedas, perform sacrifices and protect the people. The Vaisya was to study the Vedas, perform sacrifices, promote agriculture, cattle breeding and trade. The Sudra was to serve the other people. According to Dharmendra Kumar Gupta "Of the four castes the first three were collectively called dvija or dvijati, literally meaning 'twice-born' and signifying that the investiture of sacred thread, that entitled them to study the Vedas, constituted their second birth. 3 4 It is the fear of Danda which keeps the four Varnas on the right path, as they do not dare to deviate from the path sanctioned by the scriptures. The social order is properly maintained when Danda is properly utilised by the king. When the people do not follow their duties and kamandakiya nitisara, dvitiya sarga 18. ijyadhyayanadanani yathasastram sanatanah | brahmanaksatriyavisam samanyo dharma ucyate || Cf. Bhagavadgita 18.41-44. 11 4. Dharmendra Kumar Gupta: "Society and Culture in the time of Dandin. (Meharchand Lachhmandas, Daryaganj, Delhi, 1972), p.201.

80 encroach upon the rights of other persons, they are corrected and kept on the right path by the king. It is only when the culprits are not punished, that all the considerations of life as to what to do and what not, come to an end. The administration of social justice is not merely a matter of public order, but is a sacred and religious duty of the king. This is made clear by numerous other texts which declare that by reason of the proper administration of justice, the king will not merely obtain the good will of his subjects, but would attain the heaven and that by miscarriage of justice he will not merely lose the good will of his subjects, but also incur punishment for sin. In the Manasollasa, Somesvara discusses the duties of the four Agramas. The duty of the Brahmacarin was to study the Vedas, to worship fire, to perform ablution at proper times, to live by alms and to stay with his teachers. to the end of his student-life, in his absence with teacher's son or with a fellow student. The duty of the householder was to earn his livelihood by proper means, to marry among his equals, to have contacts with his wife at proper times and to make gifts. The duty of the Vanaprastha consisted in the observance of continence,

81 sleeping on bare earth, keeping matted hair, wearing deerskin, and living upon the forest produce. The Parivrajaka had to control his senses, abstain from all works and to 5 maintain external and internal purity. The principles common to all the Asramas were non-injury to all, truthfulness, freedom from spite, non-wickedness and forgiveness. Every one was expected to do one's own duty or Svadharma. The king in Somesvara's Manasollasa, was entrusted with the task of maintaining the approved social order and protecting all in the performance of their duties. The state stood for the people's welfare; hence it had to appoint a large number of officers to look after them for their prosperity. The king had his own personal staff such as personal attendants, cooks, palace guards and the superintendents of harem, doctor of the palace, 7 6 8 5. manusmrti - 4.98. vayasah karmano'rthasya tasyabhijanasya ca | vesavagbuddhisarupyamacaran vicarediha || 6. asambhedyah sucirdaksah krtannasya pariksakah | sudanam ca 'visesajnah sudadhyakso vidhiyate || 2.2.134. 7. virupo lobha - hinasca savadhano jitendriyah | ingitakara - kusalah suddhantadhyaksa isyate || 2.2.146. 8. sastrasastravido vaidyanabhyasanipunanapi | unhapoha-vivekajnan sudhahastan priyamvadan || 1.19.139. naranam ca gajanam ca vajinam ca gavamapi | mrganam ca khaganam ca ye jananti cikitsatam || 2.2.138.

82 and for the welfare of society the king had judges of the court or Dharmadhikari,9 and so on. In political and military fields he and his ministers, along with the army, were very prominent. In social field also the king himself with his agents had to protect the social institutions and had to impart justice to all as sanctioned and formulated by the Sastras. Hence, the ; judicial officers, namely the judges of different grades, played important roles in their field. The people's prosperity depends upon economic stability; so the civil servants employed in economic affairs had to perform their duties efficiently. The religious field also was covered by the civil services, as the king stood for the protection of Dharma, because he was regarded as the protector of the Vedas and the Vedic traditions. For the promotion of education and culture, the State had to establish and patronise educational institutions and learned persons. Generally persons love the king or Master for the fulfilment of their selfish motives, but good and loyal servants serve him even sacrificing their own interests and life. The king enjoys the fruits of his State being assisted 9. smrtisastrarthakusala ragadvesavivarjitah | dharmadhikarinah karya vilobha bhayavarjitah || 2.2.93.

83 by competent servants well-versed in different branches of arts and sciences. Good servants are very active, and being ordered by the king act swiftly and efficiently. 10 The utility of civil servants depends upon the virtues of the king. Though born in high families, they do not perform their duties properly; if he is motivated by selfishness and attachment and has not controlled his senses. Such a king, does not enjoy the fruits of his State. Kautilya expresses similar view regarding the utility of civil servants (5.4 ) . The civil servants render their services to the State, and cause prosperity to it, so in lieu of that the king should do what is conducive to their welfare. It is his duty to encourage those civil servants and military servants with sweet words, who are very active, swift and efficient 11 and must respect those who perform their duties well. 10. mahabharata santiparva 116.6-7. - yo yasatpragraharatih sneharagabalatkrtah | indriyanamanisatvada sajjanabubhusakah || tasya bhrtya vigunatam yanti sarve kulodgatah | na ca bhrtyaphlairarthaih sa raja samprayujyate || 11. yuddhapurvadine raja krtotsahah sabhagatah | kumaramandaladhisan samantan manyakanapi || suvarnavastrabharanaistosayed sainyakamstatha | vagbhih protsahayet tamtraca gunakirtanamananaih || 2.20 1146-47. •

84 Further, he should promote the services of those military and civil servants who are efficient and wish to serve 12 him well. Somadeva has in this connection the following advice in Yasastilaka. "Kings who enjoy pleasures at will, leaving the charge of the kingdom in the hands of officials, are foolish indeed. They might as well sleep, leaving the cats incharge of milk. The movement of fish in the water and of birds in the sky might sometimes be known, but the conduct of ministers, inscrutable even in palpable matters, can never be known." There cannot be a kingdom with the king alone without any officials; so they have to be created as well as guarded with care. Somesvara clearly says in the Manasollasa that letters and presents sent by a friend or an enemy should not be accepted without being examined by trust-worthy persons. mahabharata santiparva 119.15, 120.22. banavadvisrta yanti svamikaryapara janah | ye bhrtyah parthivahitastesam santvam prayojayet || apyadrstva niyuktani anurupesu karmasu | sarvastananuvarteta svaramstantririvayata || 12. yasastilaka - 3.23-24. niyuktahasta rpita rajyabharastisthanti ye svairaviharasarah | bidala-vrndahita - dugdhamudrah svapanti te mudhadhiyah ksitindrah || jnayeta margah salile timinam patatrinam vyomni kadacidesah | adhyaksa siddhe'pi krtavalopa na jnayate'matyajanasya vrttih ||

85 The duties and qualifications of various officials of the king are dealt with by Somesvara in the Manasollasa. These are found as well in Kamandakiya Nitisara, Kautilya's Arthasastra, Somadeva's Yasastilaka, Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja and other works. 13 The Duta or envoy should be an aged Brahmana, learned, eloquent, forbearning in the face of provocation and amiable; he should be efficient, courageous, pure, wise and ready-witted. Manu says about Duta or an ambassador: "Let him also appoint the Duta who is versed in all sciences, who understands hints, expressions of the face and gestures, who is honest, skilful and of noble family. Such an ambassador is commended to a king." Great importance is attached to the role of the spies in the king's government and they are regarded as a sort of second sight for him. The institution of spies is treated in - 13. manusmrti 6.63-64. dutam caiva prakurvita sarvasastravisaradam | ingitakaracestanam sucim daksam kulodgatam || anuraktah sucirdaksah smrtiman desakalavit | vapusman vitabhirvagmi duto rajnam prasasyate || r

86 great detail in all ancient works on Indian polity. 14 According to Manu "Having performed his twilight-devo tions, let him, well-armed, hear in an inner apartment the doings of those who make secret reports and of his spies." Yajnavalkya' 15 also has dealt with this. How should the king inflict punishment upon the civil servants? Should he act according to his own will or follow the advice of others blindly? It is laid down that one should be punished after finding out t _ his guilt and for this, he personally or through his agent should enquire into the cause of allegations or 16 real offence. The culprits should be punished in accordance with the gravity of the offence. For light offence, harsh punishment must not be inflicted, but 17 it should be of the proper type. The king, who inflicts 14. manusmrti - 7.223. sandhyam copasya srnuyadantarvesmani sastrabhrt | rahasyakhyayinam caiva pranidhinam ca cestitam || 15. yajnavalkya smrti 1.330. sandhyamupasya srnuyaccaranam gudhabhasitam | gitanrtyaisca bhunjita pathetsvadhyayameva ca || 16. adosan dusayan raja dosayuktandandayan | 17. akirti mahatimeti durgatim cadhigacchati || 2.20 1244. dosanurupadandatvam sarvasattvahitaisita | dayalutvam praptannatvam bhrtyanam sukhadarsita || 2.1.6.

87 proper punishment on the culprits, prospers much. So he should always have proper control over them and punishment should be properly inflicted.