Understanding of Myth and its definition

The primitive man was the pioneer who recorded encountered obstacles of the universe. His knowledge was invaluable and it was his intelligence that made him formulate the myths, based on realities, but veiled in allegories and illustrated through symbols. That perhaps, may be a reason why poet narrates myths because both are based on imagination. Myths are traditional tales shared by a group of people. Definition of the word ‘myth’ faced many problems. The term ‘myth’ is defined and discussed by many scholars. There are several meanings of myth available in dictionaries. [See below: Definition of Myth]

Scholars dealing with myth have taken in consideration the philosophical, theological and the scientific views and methods. According to Sigmund Freud, myths are indulgence in creation. Myths are reveries of the race, the imaginary fulfilment of the subdued desires of an individual.^[1]

Carl Jung says that, myths are the manifestation of primeval psychic proceeds that may be even before the onset of the human race. They arise from the collective unconsciousness,^[2] which are expressed through the Archetypes that are the good feelings of an individual in an unconscious state. Archetypes are elements of the collective unconscious, expressed in myths, religion, dreams, personal fantasies, as well as in literary works, that all provide knowledge. Walter Burkert states myths are traditional tales that are ancillary to collective importance.”^[3]

Durkheim points out that the utility of myths is to create a cohesive societal structure governed by rules and habits.^[4] He thinks that myth is a part of the religious system. Myth expresses in statements what ritual expresses in action and both are social functions with added essence of common well being. So both myth and ritual have symbolic implications; reflecting higher values in social life, and certain aspects of social structure. Raglan and Robert Graves observe an organic link between myths and rituals. Edmund Leach believes that myths and rituals perform the same function of communicating the equivalent message. They are symbolic assertions of the social structure.

Canadian critic, Northrop Frye, linked the study of myth to literary works^[5] Frye observes an innate relation between myth and literature also opines that in addition to the genres, even themes in literature have their origin in mythologies.

Claude Levi-Strauss a cultural Anthropologist defines:

“Myth is a language to be known, myth has to be told, it is a part of human speech. In order to preserve its specificity we must be able to show that it is both the same thing as language, and also something different from it.”^[6]

He is a strong supporter of the need to study a myth methodically. In fact, his movement helps in flouting down a myth into its basic structural units and establishes points of similarity between them impartial of their origin. He thinks that each story will portray a positive function or “every ingredient unit will consist of a relative.”^[7]

Myth is a sub-discipline of comparative religious studies that has recently emerged as a specific discipline. The word myth roots from the Greek word ‘mythos’ which means speech, thought, narrative, story of the unknown. Plato refers to ‘mythos’ as a traditional tale whose reality and credibility is suspected.^[8] He points to ‘muthos’ as a story that occurred in the past through which the deeds of gods and creation can be described. However, Aristotle uses the word ‘mythos’ to refer to the framework of the story and “the arrangement of the incidents.”^[9] He used the term in his poetics to mean fable in the plot or narrative structure. The Greek classics are full of myths of numerous gods and supernatural beings and myths are used in place of images to project the hidden truths. Myth can be an image, a symbol, and a metaphor. The critical theories of structuralism and semiotics are the new trends which are giving a different meaning to the word ‘myth’. An ‘image’ is a mental enactment of perceptual experience; it is connected with sensation. An image is not only visual, also represents, something invisible, something inner. In this manner an image can be metaphoric. It can also be a symbol when it is used to highlight the implicit relation between the ‘sign’ and the ‘signified’. An image becomes a symbol when it is often used to represent something abstract. It is a general tendency to use myths as a part of imagery in literary works. An image can be drawn from myths to make collateral between ancient and existent conditions of life. The use of myth as an image, a metaphor or a symbol is efficient and it transcribes life at diverse dimensions.^[10]

Schelling in his Philosophy of Mythology does not accept its primitive character to explain nature. According to him myth is not the result of imagination but of necessity. The entire performance of myth is played on the vast condition of human consciousness—

“Myth has no existence outside human consciousness, but even though mythological process consists solely in determination of consciousness... This progress, must have really taken place must really have occurred in consciousness.”^[11]

Bolton states myths reflect the result of collective consciousness. However, myths not only reform the cultural thinking and belief of society, and of individuals, but also reflect the attributes of a righteous individual and his behaviour. Moreover, He clarifies as to how myths touch humanism. The aperture of human emotion has been used by the myths to distinguish human being from other creatures in their aperture of emotion. They reflect the feelings of love, envy and grief etc. Understanding myths help civilization to appreciate their human nature. Pointedly, the characters of myths are so arranged as to reach out to people. This trait makes myth remarkable and perpetual. Myths also provide ethical lessons to overcome immoral behaviour.^[12] Bolton adds other role of myths. Myths give a decent picture of the natural and social order. The universe begins with creation, after which all living beings are created and finally describes the creation of society.^[13]

According to the allegorical theory, myths are allegories. Caldwell mentions Kirk’s definition of myths which declare completely that myths bear lessons about life. Kirk states that myths: “are on one hand good stories, on the other hand bearers of important messages about life in general and life-withinsociety in particular.”^[14] Lessons are not explained directly. Reader has to read myth and bring out the message.

Campbell classifies purpose of myth into four categories:

1. Mystical

The mystical roles aim to draw people’s attention to the mystery and wonder of the creation of the universe and its beings.

2. Cosmological

The cosmological function is to show the shape of the universe and its content.

3. Sociological

The sociological aspect mentions the ‘ethical laws’ which give people a charter to follow in their behaviours with others.

4. Pedagogical functions:

The pedagogical function is to teach people how to live a lifetime under different circumstances.^[15]

From the above mentioned discussions, one could soundly endorse Francis Ferguson’s view that myth represents the “deepest wisdom in man.”^[16]

Study of myth in any context is incomplete without some reference to Max Muller. Acknowledging the unsystematic and continuously changing status of religion or myth, Muller focused on the fact that supposition concerning man’s ability to relate to religion and myth were still in elementary state. So research dedicated to communication and synthesis is desperately needed for success of the discipline. Religion and myth are pertinent to and influenced by theology, philosophy, philology, history, social and natural science.^[17] Muller is credited to make mythological studies popular and his Essays in Comparative Mythology are the first most significant work in the area. He thinks that study of mythology is imperative as it leads to easy understanding of diverse religions and cultures. He felt that understanding of myth enables one to perceive the origin of religious thoughts and beliefs. He argued that queries on cosmology were fundamental and required a search of earliest myths.^[18]

Devdutt Pattanaik, an Indian mythologist, defines myth as ―

“A special kind of communication that establishes a relationship between the universe, society and humans… through three avenues: narratives, symbols and rituals.”^[19]

Pattanaik perceives myths to be a sacred idea inherited over generations as well as an absurd, irrational, unsophisticated and fantastic concept about the world.^[20]

He affirms that myth takes the form of narrative and allegory, and produces a power of truth. Narratives, symbols, and rituals appear to be communications of universal maxim.^[21] He also views myths as allegories, and that narrative is nothing but a medium for expressing something else, nothing more…a vehicle for expressing something that is otherwise too abstract or profound complex experiences.^[22] In this sense, myth is described as a world of illusions against rationality, a world of faith against the world of science; a traditional, culture-specific understanding of the world against a universal understanding of the world.

Modern approach finds in myth storage of ethnic history to project an ancient society and inter-relationship of various races. Malinowski puts—

“Myth... is not an explanation in satisfaction of a scientific interest but a narrative resurrection of a primeval reality, told in satisfaction of deep religious wants, moral cravings, social submissions, assertions, even practical requirements.”^[23]

Myth is thus an active force of human civilization. It is creative imagery that gives pragmatic accounts of ancient believe and ethical knowledge. The myths are statements of reality for the primitive through which their activities, fortunes and lifestyle could be deduced. These are the mythical stories that have brought a social system with all its force. Myths convey the socio-political, religious and ethical virtues of a tradition, and enable realization of individual experiences in a worldwide perspective. This includes the intrusion of superhuman existence, as well as prospects of natural and cultural bidding.

The Vedas, Upaniṣads, Āranyakas, Epics, Purāṇas etc are excellent examples of stories of myths veiled in allegories and illustrated through symbols. The knowledge of mythology is made necessary to understand the concept of Hayaśira Viṣṇu as reflected in the epic, Mahābhārata.

Definition of Myth:

The DK Oxford Illustrated Dictionary defines myth as:

“A fictitious tale usually involving supernatural persons, some popular idea or historical phenomena.”

Cambridge International Dictionary of English which has defined the concept of myth as:

“An ancient story or set of stories, esp. explaining in a literary way the early history or set of stories of a group people or about natural events as well as facts.”

The Random House Dictionary of the English Language defines myth in this way:

“Myth is a traditional or legendary story, usually concerning some superhuman being or some alleged person or event, with or without a determinable basis of fact or a natural explanation, especially a traditional or legendary story that is concerned with deities or demigods and the creation of the world and its inhabitants.”

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica says that,

“Myth, a story, usually of unknown origin and at least partially traditional, that ostensibly relates actual events to explain some practice, belief, institution, or natural phenomenon, and that is especially, associated with religious rites and beliefs.”

The word mythology defines both the study of myth and particular culture or religious tradition.”

The definition of myth given in The Chambers Dictionary which regards it as:

“An ancient traditional story of gods or heroes, especially one offering an explanation of some fact or phenomenon; a story with a veiled meaning; mythical matter; a figment; commonly held belief that is untrue or without foundation.”

Simpson & Roud interpret myth as:

“Stories about divine beings, generally arranged in a coherent system; they are revered as true and sacred; they are endorsed by rulers and priests; and closely linked to religion. Once this link is broken, and the actors in the story are not regarded as gods but as human heroes, giants or fairies, it is no longer a myth but a folktale. Where the central actor is divine but the story is trivial the result is religious legend, not myth.”

American Heritage Dictionary presents four meanings for myth.

1) A traditional, typical ancient story dealing with supernatural beings, ancestors, or heroes that serves as fundamental type in the world view of people, as by explaining aspects of the natural world or delineating the psychology, customs, or ideals of society.

2) A story, a theme, an object, or a character regarded as embodying an aspect of culture.

3) A fiction or half-truth, especially one that forms parts of an ideology.

4) A fictitious story, person, or thing.

From the above mentioned definitions it is clear that myth has an unknown origin. It is partially conventional, explains some natural experience and it is related to the social belief, a practice and natural aspect. Myth is also defined as a traditional story of gods or heroes not based on facts.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Strachey, James: Sigmund Freud, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, p.116.

[2]:

Jung, Carl: Archetypes of Collective Unconscious, 20th Century Criticism, p.37.

[3]:

Wellek, Rene and Warren, Austin: Image, Metaphor, Symbol, Myth in Theory of Literature, p.190.

[4]:

L. Durkheim cited by William Righter Myth and Literature, p.9.

[5]:

Frye, Northrope and Knights, L.C: Myth and Symbol: Critical Approaches and Applications, p.67.

[6]:

Barthes, Roland: Mythologies, p.86.

[7]:

Levi-Strauss, Claude: Myth and Meaning, p.88.

[8]:

Alhaidari, Ali and Bhanegaonkar, S.G: Meaning, Origin and Functions of Myth: A Brief Survey. In: International Journal of Social Science Tomorrow. Vol. 1 No. 3, (2012). p.3.

[9]:

Alhaidari, Ali and Bhanegaonkar, S.G: ibid., ‘loc. cit.’p.3.

[10]:

Foaks, R.A: Coleridge, Biographia Literaria. In: Romantic Criticism-1800-1850. (1968), p.89

[11]:

Lal, D.K: Myth and Mythical Concept in O'Neills Plavs, p.10.

[12]:

Alhaidari, Ali and Bhanegaonkar, S.G: Op.cit., p.5.

[13]:

Alhaidari, Ali and Bhanegaonkar, S.G: ibid., p.5.

[14]:

Alhaidari, Ali and Bhanegaonkar, S.G: ibid., p.5.

[15]:

Alhaidari, Ali and Bhanegaonkar, S.G: ibid., p.6.

[16]:

Francis, Ferguson: The Human Image in Dramatic Literature, p.161.

[17]:

The foundational work Introduction to the Science of Religion: four lectures delivered at the Royal Institution, February 19 (1882).

[18]:

Capps pp. 68-71.

[19]:

Pattanaik, Devdutt: Indian Mythology, Tales Symbol and Rituals from the Heart of Subcontinent, p.14.

[20]:

Pattanaik, Devdutt: ibid., p.9.

[21]:

Pattanaik, Devdutt: ibid., p.115.

[22]:

Pattanaik. Devdutt: ibid., p.194.

[23]:

Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol.15, p.1133.