The Art of ancient Indian Cooking

417 The Art of Cooking The primary wants of life are those of food, clothing and shelter. The country was largely agricultural and hence there was ample supply of food. But the food of the common and the rich was different. Articles of Food The articles of food were milk (kshira), curds, butter, ghee (ghruta), oil (tila), honey (madhu), wine (madira), motes guda), meat (mansa), sugar (sarkara), rice (sali), motates(guda), barley (saktu), spices, sesame (tila), pepper (maricha), salt (lavanam), grams (chanakas), wheat-flour (godhuma churna), mustard-seed (sarshapa), vegetables (saka), fish, roots (mulakas) etc. Salt was powdered and used to add 702 Savour to the food. The flowery-white salt is mentioned. 701 703 A type of fragrant and good white rice (madhuramoda sali), and another variety of a special rice (kalamasati) is 704 mentioned. The goat-milk is mentioned. A child which was 705 brought up on goat-milk was called 'ajakshiravardhita' Vegetables were grown. Vegetable gardens are mentioned. People used to make yearly provisions of some of these 707 706 articles. 701. Nirnaya Sagar 18.4.230, 17.1.39, 18.2.75, 6.3.144,6.3.147, 12.9.139, 122.56, 12.3.41, 6.1.125, 12.14.42,16.2.118, 12.15.25, 18.4.230, 17.1.39, 18.2.75, 10.5.8,40, 10.5.99,105, 10.6.106, 10.9.141, 7.5.116, 6.8.203, 6.6.117,118. These also formed the part of dietry of the Indian people during the 2 nd C.A.D., Jain J.C. Op.cit., p.123-124. He mentions the popular gulalavangiya (gulapapadi). 702. Ibid. 1015.40,43. 703. Ibid. 12.15.22,25. 704. Ibid. 12.15.23. 705. Ibid. 16.2.105. 706. Ibid. 12.5.206. 707. Ibid. 4.3.20.

Cooking 418 The various preparations from the above articles were 708 prepared in a cooking pot (patram, karpara). Since we have many references to the preparation such as curry, elixir, warm-rice pudding, meat-curry, wheat-flour-cakes (apupikas) it can be presumed that there must have been different pots in which these vinds were cooked. The apupikas were cooked in the flame and then were smeared with ghee. 711 710 A charubhanda is mentioned. Cooks (supakaras) were employed by rich and the kings. The cook was one of the king's important servant. They used to prepare various types of dishes. It is mentioned that the royal meals of king 712 Prasannajit contained various dishes. Plates and dishes 713 (patras) have been mentioned. The rich and king used to 715 eat these articles in golden dishes. The Meals 716 Warm-rice pudding (paramannam) or rice-gruel (yavagu), 718 717 rice-curry with salt, wheat cakes (apupas), barely meals 708. Nirnaya Sagar 18.2.74, 18.5.135, 12.4.268,270. 709. Ibid. 18.2.74. 710. Ibid. 8.6.142. 711. Ibid. 9.6.404, 3.6.198, 8.6.41, 1.8.24, 7.5.9.3.6.198, 201, 8.1.189. 712. Ibid. 12.15.26. 713. Ibid. 18.5.135,6.3.88, 10.7.22, 15.2.132, 12.4.270, 4.3.41. 716. Ibid. 10.7.22. 716. Ibid. 18.5.135, 8.6.37, 3.2.38. It is a weak decoration prepared in a particular way from grains, see Jamkhedkal Cultural History from Wasudeohindi, p.295. (A thesis submitted to Poona University for Ph.D.) 717. Ibid. 12.15.26, 10.5.40. 718. Ibid. 18.2.74. ☐

419 719 720 (saktu), boiled rice with milk and sugar (paramannam), 721 vegetables (sakam), milk and its products were in common 722 723 use. Various types of curries (supas) were also in use. Grams (chanakas) and its powder was used by the poor. 724 It is mentioned that cooked rice (pakvanna) was the daily food of the people and particularly of kosala province. 725 It was served in plates. Wheat-flour and various preparations from it were made by the common man. Wheatflour was sold in the market at Ujjayini. A cold drink 727 ayassa palam) was probably taken and again a pala of 728 milk was taken daily. Things to make a splendid meal 729 were sold in a city in Kalinga country. It is also mentioned that cakes of wheat-flour were sold to travellers in a certain market, the rate being a pana (a coin) for 730 eight cakes. Journey provisions (patheyam) were also sold 2-731° in the market. Generally the common-man and the kings 732 appear to take their meals in the third-watch of the day. 'dua 719. Nirnaya Sagar 10.6.106, 9.4.174, 12.4.268, 266, 258. Also mentioned by Patanjali, Puri B.N.India ing the times of Patanjali, p.96. 720. Ibid. 3.2.38,39. 721. Ibid. 12.5.206. 722. Ibid. 9.2.118. 723. Ibid. 1.6.40,43. 724. Ibid. 10.7.182, 6.1.88,89. 725. Ibid. 6.3.88. 726. Ibid. 18.2.74. 727. Ibid. 9.4.180. 728. Ibid. 9.4.177. 729. Ibid. 12.8.106,107. 730. Ibid. 10.6.204. They are also mentioned by Patanjali Puri B.N. Op.cit., p.96. 731. Ibid. 10.5.276. 732. Ibid. 10.3.89.

420 Among other preparations mention is made of a sweet 733 dish of rice, sugar, milk and ghee (sakshiraghrutasarakara), 735 734 delicious food (paramannam), the sweets (modakam), the 736 737 barley meal with salt (lavana saktum), milk-pudding (kshira), 738 rice-curry with salt, a dish consisting of soup of milk, 739 rice and sesame, a sauce of rice with some condiment 740 741 (vyanjanam) for flavour. A dish of amalaka is also mentioned 742 The soup (sarakam) is referred to. Pepper (maricha), mustard-seed (sarsapa) roasted sesame (tila) and salt was used in the various preparations, mentioned above. It used to give a nice taste (staduna), Vegetables and fruits were also consumed. Fruits 743 such as mango, citron (matulanga), amalaka, jambu, kapittha, gourd (karkitika) have been mentioned. The hermits ate roots and fruits that were available in the forest. 744 But food containing all the six flavours (shadrasahara) was considered to be the best food in those days. 733. Nirnaya Sagar 12.20.39,47, 7.9.55. 734. Ibid. 7.3.93. 735. Ibid. 1.6.116, 10.9.186, 14.2.96. 736. Ibid. 10.9.14. 737. Ibid. 10.9.142. 738. Ibid. 10.5.40. 739. Ibid. 10.5.99. 740. Ibid. 8.6.37, also mentioned by Panani, Panani, Agarwal V.S. Op.cit., p.101-104. 741. Ibid. 10.4.242. 742. Ibid. 10.5.99. 743. Ibid. 12.5.246, 10.4.242, 9.3.27, 18.4.32. 744. Ibid. 10.6.81.

421 Non-Vegetarian Food Wine and meat were considered among luxurious foods. Meat eating was prevalent in the society. The hunters (vyadha), fishers, fowlers (sakunikas), and the butchers (saunika) who supplied various kinds of meats and fishes 745 are mentioned. Animals were killed outside villages. 747 Big fishes from the sea were caught for the flesh. Varieties of soups and elixirs were prepared from these animals and fishes. 748 Meat was fried and rosted. It was boiled in oil. Flesh of deer (mrugamausa) (harinamisha) or (sarang) wildgoat, wild-boar (varaha), cow, buffalo (mahisha), big fish, 749 and birds (shakunas) is mentioned. Among non-vegetarian preparations mention is made of 750 meals of deers flesh, an excellent alixir (rasakottamam) flixir 751 from the flesh of a wild-goat and another from its horns, 752 dish of a rosted flesh of a goat, barley meals with ghee, 753 little rice and small quantity of meat curry, a dish of 745. Nirnaya Sagar 10.5.59, 12.7.112, 14.4.273, 278, 12.2.133,136. 1.8.25. 746. Ibid. 10.6.213. 747. Ibid. 18.4.230. 748. Ibid. 12.6.382, 17.102,103. 749. Ibid. 14.3.10,17.1.102, 10.3.50, 10.9.101,102. 10.6.215,218,268, 12.6.382. 750. Ibid. 14.3.10. 751. Ibid. 7.5.7,9. 752. Ibid. 12.5.382. 753. Ibid. 9.4.171. 1 1 i

754 422 flesh, a dish of the meat of a buffalo and meat-curry 765 (maun savyanjanam) with ghee. Men as well as ladies appear to be eating meat. There seems to be no restriction on meat eating during the period. Marco Polo who visited India during this age mentions that people of South India lived on meat, 756 rice, milk and drank wine. Vidnyaneshwar, Apararka and Medhatithi who flourished during this period have also stated that meat was lawful food and that no blame 757 was to be given for partaking of fish and meat. Thus, wife of King Simhaparakrama is mentioned to 758 be eating meat and drinking wine. Even Brahamanas appear to be eating meat and used 759 to take drinks. Deer flesh was sold to Brahmin Bhimabhatta 760 by hunters. At the time of festivals meat and its other preparations were catered to guests in parties. It is mentioned that at the time of a festival in the house of a rich man a feast of meat cooked in ghee (ghrutamansa) was 461 arranged. 754. Nirnaya Sagar 10.6.215. 755. Ibid. 9.4.170. 756. Mujumdar R.C.Op.cit., Vol.V, p.485. 757. Ibid. p.485. 758. Nirnaya Sagar 4.3.37. 759. Ibid. 10.7.70. 760. Ibid. 12.7.112. 761. Ibid. 9.4.170, 6.4.97.

423 Kings are mentioned to have employed the cooks (supakaras) who prepared and served various meat-dishes King Satavahana used to eat meat of sarang (birds), varaha (wild-boar) and mahisha (buffalo) every 762 and soups. day. King Prithvirupa of Pratisthana is also said to have enjoyed the best meat and drink after his marriage 763 But King Kanakavarsha when roaming in a with Rupalata. jungle killed a deer and after rosting its flesh devoured 764 it. People also drank animal fat but that was before 765 taking wine. It was believed that an embryo cooked and eaten with rice and a dish of human flesh when eaten as well gave 766 men some supernatural powers. The practice of offering wine, flesh and rice to ghosts, 767 goblins and yakshas was prevalent. Food on Special Occasions On the occasions of feasts, marriages, festivals and fairs, special food and dishes were prepared. It is mentioned that a delicious food (paka vannam) was prepared in a 768 house on a marriage day. Feasts with drinks were given on 762. Nirnaya Sagar 188.22,23. 763. Ibid. 9.1.186,188. 764. Ibid. 12.6.382. 765. Ibid. 12.6.153,154. 766. Ibid. 14.4.78, 3.6.199. 767. Ibid. 6.2.164,167, 14.1.57. 768. Ibid. 13.1.160. Rice, ghee, meat-curry and milk constituted the noomal dietry of affluent merchants of these days. Mujumdar R.C. Op.cit., Vol. V. p.485.

r 424 the occasion of the safe arrival of a relative from a 769 distant journey. On a festival accasion in a rich man's 770 house a dish of meat cooked in ghee was prepared. On religious celebrations and happy days a sweet-dish (modakam) 771 was a favourite. Also at the time of sacrifice a sweet dish of boiled rice, ghee, sugar and milk appears to be 772 a favourite. Oblation (charu) was offered to the dead 723 on the special day. For the preparation of this oblation 774 a special charubhanda was probably used. Wine On the special occasions of feasts marriages etc. wine was extensively used as a favourite drink. It was considered as a luxurious food. Drinking of wine seems to be very common in the society. Liquor was manufactured 775 and consumed on a large scale. Kings, princes, and queens are seen entertaining each other with various kinds of wines and liquors. The 776 following varieties of wine are mentioned : 777 779 -> Sura (wine), Sudha (wine from flowers); sarakam (excellent and delicious 778 780 wine), madhu (juice of grapes), madya, sidhu (rum) or (a 769. Nirnaya Sagar 12.9.58. 770. Ibid. 9.4.170. 771. Ibid. 10.9.186, 10.8.71,74,14.2.96. 772. Ibid. 12.20.39. 773. Ibid. 9.6.395. 774. Ibid. 8.6.142. 775. Ibid. 9.4.82,194,198,9.1.186,188, 7.9.61, 7.6.2,3, 7.5.202, 6.1.199, 4.1.6,7,10. 776. Ibid. 4.1.22,For more varieties in ancient India please refer to Jain J.C. op. cit., p.124-125 and also Salatore R.N. Op. cit., p.120-122, Vishnudharmottara, XXII(83-84). 777. Ibid. 8.2.63. 778. Ibid. 9.4.199,200. 779. Ibid. 4.1.6,7,10,9.4.82. 780. Ibid. 3.1.8, 7.5.207.

781 425 fermented sugar-cane juice), a kind of wine flaming with 782 rosy glow (ragajjvalamadhu) and another red delicious 683 and pellucid wine (arakta sura sa swachcha). It is mentioned that a kind of wine distilled from fruit was given to prince Mrigakadatta by a Bhilla Chief of the Vindhya 784 region. King Udayana and his son Naravahanadatta, the hero of Kathasaritsagara, are always mentioned as engaged in drinking bouts 785 (panadililaya) with their wives. Naravahanadatta was too much devoted to wine (madyasakta") and is said to have drank wine in goblets of crystal (sphatikacha shaka). This wing wind was brought by beautiful women in golden vessels 786 (suvarna kalasha). A drinking bout of King Ratnadhipati 787 and his queen Rajadatta is also mentioned. Not only men but even women seem to be equally 788 788 addicted to wine. The Panamatta ladies are referred to. This gets corroborated when we get scenes showing men and women drinking together at social gatherings in the 790 contemporary khajurao sculptures. 781. Nirnaya Sagar 3.6.230/1. 782. Ibid. 4.1.6,7.10. 783. Ibid. 4.1.6,8. 784. Ibid. 12.35.113. 785. Ibid. 14.2.50,52, 4.2.52, 3.4.26,27,3.6.230/1,6.7.13. 786. Ibid. 4.1.6,7,10. 6.8.93. 787. Ibid. 3.1.8. 788. Ibid. 12.8.155. 789. Ibid. 10.8.101. 790. Thaper Urmila, 'Khajurao_Sculpture and their significence. p.116, But Medha tithi and Visvarupa say that drinking is forbidden to women of all the three upper classes. Mujumdar R.C. op. cit., Vol.IV p.387.123)

426 Queen Vasavadatta, queen Ayosholekha and the queen 791 of King Simhaparakrama used to drink wine in great quantity. The cheeks of Vasavadatta were red due to the flash of 798 wine which rose to them. 793 It is mentioned that the Courtesans also drank wine. famous courtesan Kumudika of Ujjayini entertained King Vikramasimha with bath unguents and luxuries in a magnificent style. Tambula (Betal) Betal-chewing after meals was a favourite habit of contemporary society. This was also in vogue during the 795 Gupta Age. Betel nuts flavoured with five-fruits are 796 mentioned. King King Mrigankadatta, Kanakavarsha, Naravahanadatta and many other kings from Kathasaritsagara are seen chewing betel 797 (tambula) after meals. The entertainment of a guest used 798 to end in betal-chewing.