Magic in ancient India

Manners and Customs Magic and Superstitions Magic and superstitions occupied an important part in the social life in ancient India. We come across a number of spells, charms, magical practices, magical powers, magical rites, magical things and articles, and many beliefs and superstitious in our stories from Kathasaritsagara The Kathasaritsagara mentions quite a number of beliefs some of which even survive to this day. 542. Nirnaya Sagar 12.5.66 and 74. 543. Ibid. 18.5.56.

Beliefs - 398 Innumerable are our references to various beliefs mentioned in the Kathasaritsagara The following beliefs are referred to. 1. A son cursed by his father and mother does not 544 long enjoy prosperity. 545 2. Sinners are reborn in law-caste and also as brids. 3. To get rid of sin and to accumulate merit (punya), presents (danam) were given at the time of sun 546 and moon eclipses. 4. Charity (dana) here, averts misery in the next birth. A true dana has its effect. It is mentioned that a Brahmin recovered from a dangerous illness 547 by true danam. 5. Heavenly beings owing to a curse fall into human 548 birth. 6. A case wrongly decided brings temporal and eternal 549 death. 550 7. Suicide leads to hell (naraka). 551 8. Hospitality will bear its fruit in the other world. 9. If a person suddenly remembers his or her former 552 birth and tells it, it surely brings death. 544. Nirnaya Sagar 9.6.139/1. 545. Ibid. 4.1.137. 546. Ibid. 9.4.157,158. 547. Ibid. 10.5.216, 5.3.161 Also See Saletare R. N.Op. cit., p.103. 548. Ibid. 6.1.76. 549. Ibid. 10.6.54. 550. Ibid. 12.29.20. 551. Ibid. 8.4.7. 552. Ibid. 6.1.83,84.

399 10. A blazing guardian-lamp (rakshapradipa) was to be burnt in the room in which a child was to 553 be born, to protect it from evil spirit. 11. Auspicious and protective weapons were to be kepti 554 the room in which a child was to be born and matrons having sons (putrunis) were appointed to 555 prepare the delivery-room in a house. 556 12. Some unseen form or spirit protects a person, and guardian deities also guide a man along a 557 correct path. 558 13. Excellant horses are divine beings. 14. A stormy sea is silenced if jewels are offered to 559 it. 15. Females did not dare to enter the temple of 560 2. 16. Kartikaya through fear. 16. One should not enter a temple and approach a god 561 empty-handed. 17. The touch of a chaste lady will bring to life a 562 127. dead-body. 553. Nirnaya Sagar 6.2.4, 4.3.62. 554. Ibid. 6.8.48, 4.3.61. 555. Ibid. 10.6.54, 4.3.61. 556. Ibid. 9.5.147. 557. Ibid. 13.1.10. 558. Ibid. 3.4.100. 559. Ibid. 12.34.178. 560. Ibid. 9.5.174. 561. Ibid. 12.13.25. 562. Ibid. 7.2.9 to 135.

400 18. The hand and feet of a virtious man, even though 563 cut, grow again. 19. A Rakshasa has no power during day and hence 564 they delight in the night. 20. Magical power is lost if it is bestowed on an 565 undeserving aspirant (asthana dana). 21. Procrastination (kalahara) serves to avert an 566 ✓ unauspicious measure (a subhashaya karya). 22. Wealth obtained by oppression of subjects, friendship obtained by deceipt and a lady-love by violence, will not remain long (nachirasthayini). 567 People were superstitions regarding the planets. The auspicious 'tithis', 'nakshatraas', were selected. When merchants started on a sea-voyage, kings started on an 568 569 expedition, or the education of a child was to begin or in case of thread-ceremony and marriage and on many such 570 occasions auspicious moment or day, as the case may be, lunar-day of the black-fortnight was selected. The ei eight l 563. Nirnaya Sagar 6.7.49. 564. Ibid. 1.7.35. 565. Ibid. 12.25.86. 56. Ibid. 6.5.75. 667. Ibid. 10.4.203. 568. Ibid. 7.8.83. 569. Ibid. 8.6.35. 570. Ibid. 15.12.75, 8.7.203-205. 6.8.106.

401 of falguna month was considered suspicious. Fourteenth day of the black-fortnight was a special day selected to 571 obtain magical powers in a cemetery. She sight of the following objects was considered 572 573 ✓ unauspicious; a crow on the left hand; running of a dog 514 from left to right; appearance of a snake on the right%;B 576 throbbing of the left arm and shoulder%; the howling of a 575 577 jackal, and a partridge appearing on the left hand. At one place a list of unfavourable omens is given; It includes a window, lightening, fuel, smoke fire, pot of oil, leather, dog braking on a house top, crow flying right to left, snake, new pot, blind-man, lame-man, sick man, salt, tiger, bundle of sticks, buttermilk, empty vessel, quarrel, leper, oilman a man with dishevelled hair and a 578 mendicant. It was believed that each omen (sakuna) had its own 579 commanding deity (adhisthatri devata). It is stated that if a person sees an evil omen he must turn back and should 571. Nirnaya Sagar 5.2.180, 714.54-55. 572. Ibid. 8.6.129-130. 573. Ibid. 11 Also the passing of a deer from right to left foreshadowed evil, SaletoreR.N., Op.cit., p.103. 574. Ibid. 8.6.129-130. ft 575. Ibid. 576. Ibid. 6.8.103. 577. Ibid. 18.5.109. 578. Ibid. 9.3.50. 579. Ibid. 18.5.11 ll.

580 402 set out again with hopes of success. In the case of a warrior the following things were considered as evil omens (animittam); lightening-flash stuck his banners, vultures circle above his head, the state 581 umbrellas were broken and jackals uttered furious howls. Among auspicious objects, mention is made of fresh 582 fruits and flowers. It was believed that the throbbing of 583 the right eye indicated the approach of good fortune. Suicide was considered a sin and one who committs it 584 goes to hell and suffers a lot there. Magic Sciences A few magic sciences (mohinividya or vidyas) are mentioned. The science of prajnapti is mentioned. It is a science by which one conceives distant things and happenings. This science can also manifest itself in bodily. form. It is described as an all-pervading and omnipotant 586 science. The magic-science of Gauri (gauri-vidya) is stated to have been obtained by a Vidyadhara named Gaurimunda by 580. Nirnaya Sagar 6.6.47. 581. Ibid. 17.3.2 and 3. 582. Ibid. 9.3.50. 583. Ibid. 9.1.4. 584. Ibid. 8.6.227, 12.29.20. 585. Ibid. 9.1.51. 586. Ibid. 16.1.52.

403 2 propitiating goddess Gauri. It was in a visible form with three eyes (trinatra), arms with trident (trishikhayudha) 587 and had a paralysing power. It also raised to life a dead 588 The Brahmin Devadatta is said to have possessed it. woman. It is also mentioned that four supernatural powers in the form of four men of heavenly appearance lived on 589 Narikala island. They are as follows: 590 1. Rupa Siddhi :- the power of assuming various forms. 2. Pramana Siddhi :- The power that can measure the 3. Jnayana Siddhi Jnayana Jngs most minute as well as the largest 591 thing. :- The power which knows the present, 592 past and the future. 4. Devasiddhi :- The power by which all deities 593 are called down to aid a man. Magical Powers Various magical and yogic powers have been mentioned. Among them the magical power of moving through the air has 594 595 Transformations by magical-powers often been mentioned. 587. Nirnaya Sagar 14.3.105-106. 588. Ibid. 9.2.104. 589. Ibid. 9.4.17,18. 590. Ibid. 591. Ibid. 592. Ibid. " 593. Ibid. " 594. Ibid. 14.4.76,12.34.262, 3.4.374,407, 5.2.151,10.3.106 104, 10.9.227, 3.6.14, 7.4.85,86,3.6.112,113,173, 191,193. 595. Ibid. 12.4.276, 12.1.44, 3.3.104.

596 404 magical-tablets (gulika) or (yogagulika), the ability to 597 become invisible (adrushaya), and such other powers are mentioned in the book. It is stated that a hermit by his 598 yogic power turned a mouse into a young maiden; and by a 599 yogic power fruits fell from trees. A mendicant named Tapodhana is also said to have transformed a pupil into a 600 bird by his yogic power. A witch, by her magical power, is said to have changed 601 Vamadatta into a buffalo by throwing dust in his face. Padmavati also by magical power is said to have summoned 602 a tablet and colour pencils. for painting. Another Padmavati is mentioned to have created birds by her magical power and after mounting on them came to the city garden 603 (pura upavana). Yaugandharayana the chief minister of Udayana was well versed in spells and possessed many magical powers and 604 taught them to his ministers. By such power he himself got transformed to a deformed, hunch-backed oldman and gave 605 the appearance of a madman. By one more such power he 596. Nirnaya Sagar 12.22.50. 597. Ibid. 8.2.280,290, 3.6.138,139, 17.6.110,111,6.7.194. 598. Ibid. 10.6.125. 599. Ibid. 12.34.28,29. 600. Ibid. 17.5.63. 601. Ibid. 12.1.44,45. 602. Ibid. 17.1.21. 603. Ibid. 17.4.21,68,169. 604. Ibid. 6.7.194,3.2.10,11. 605. Ibid. 3.2.10,12.

606 0 405 used to make himself invisible. By magical power a certain princess was able to sow hundred Kharis (bushells) of 607 sesame (tila) in no time. A magical Magical conflicts are also mentioned. conflict between two witches named Somada and Bandha-mochani d in which they got themselves transformed into black-mare and bay-mare respectivelly and faught fiercely is mentioned. .608 The Vidyadharas are always described as possessing many magical powers. These have been discussed elsewhere. Rites to acquire Spells Rites were performed and magical charms or spells were acquired. To acquire the power of going through the 609 air a particular rite is mentioned. In this rite the victim is asked to fall on the ground in an enchanted circle with his face down and is killed and offered to the god of wealth. Again the rite of a charm to get the help of a ghost (pishacha) to heal a wound is mentioned. In this rite the person was to rise maked up in the last watch of the night and with untied hair and without 606. Nirnaya Sagar 6.7.194. 607. Ibid. 7.5.119. 608. Ibid. 7.3.162-163. 609. Ibid. 6.7.194.

406 rinsing his mouth take two handful of rice with two hands; and then muttering the form of words was to go to a place where four roads meet%3 B place there the rice and return in silence without looking back and repeat this until the 610 Pishacha comes and promises to heal the wound. It is mentioned that a Vidyadhara named Suryaprabha, by enduring for seven days the bite of snakes became the master of the science of bewildering power. He got counteracting power when for three days he resisted the force of fire%3 B and again the entry in the fire-cavity bestowed on him a chariot in the form of a white lotus that moved in the air with 108 wings and with 108 dwellings of various 611 jewels. Again a certain rite in a circle performed by a Pasupata to acquire the throne of Vidyadhara is mentioned 612 in details. At another place it is said that muttering certain spells under the water and facing many temptations and illusions one can attain the magic science that 613 produced the city, heavenly ladies etc. Also a magical rite to get rid of the quartan fever is mentioned to have been performed by Kanakamanjari in the following manner. 610. Nirnaya Sagar 6.2.164-167. 611. Ibid. 8.3.120 to 125. 612. Ibid. 12.8.45, 12.32.3,21. 613. Ibid. 12.25-50 to 56.

407 She made Asokakari to bring utensils and accompanied by her came out of the apartment with a sword in her hand, and went to a deserted Siva temple. There was a Sivalinga in it. She killed a goat with that sword and anointed the 'linga' with its blood, offered its flesh to it, threw the animal's entrails round it by way of a garland; she placed the goat's heart on it, fumigated it with the smoke of its eyes, and presented it the animal's head by way of oblation. Then she smeared the front of the sacrificial platform with blood and snadle-wood and painted on it with yellow paint lotus having eight leaves and on its pericarp 614 she traced with crused mango etc. Spells (mantras) h Innumerable are our references to various magical spells throughout the Kathasaritsagara Their names and different rites are not mentioned but power acquired by them is mentioned. The following spells or charms appear in the Kathasaritsagara 1. Spells by which power of going through the air was 615 acquired. 2. A spell (suptavidya) by which man was able to have a heavenly-look (divyadrika). 616 617 3. A spell to break the chains. 614. Nirnaya Sagar 12.4.211 to 218. 615. Ibid. 14.4.76,12.34,262,3.4.378, 5.2.151,3.6.14,7.4.85. 616. Ibid. 5.2,82, 617. Ibid. 2.4.42.

618 408 4. A spell to win the heart of a lady. (Vasikaranayoga 5. A healing spell that counteracted the effect of 619 posion. 620 622 623 6. Spells that transformed a man into a bee, ape, 621 624 625 626 goat, peacock, ox, buffalo, bird or a maiden. (animal metamorphosis). 7. A spell for breaking through the walls and another 827 to become invisible. 8. A spell that produced mechanics and juggling 628 (yantramantrajalayoga). 629 9. A spell to enter another body. 630 10. A spell that made a serpant enter a bamboo hollow. 631 11. A spell to attract man and offer him to god Rudra. 12. A charm by which a Brahmin used to keep witches 632 at a distance. 633 13. A charm by which life was prolonged. (Kalasankarshanividya) 618. Nirnaya Sagar 2.4.42. 619. Ibid. " 620. Ibid. 17.5.63, 7.3.110-111, 3.3.104. 621. Ibid. 12.4.276. 622. Ibid. 12.4.276-277. 623. Ibid. 7.3.153,154. 624. Ibid. 12.1.44-45. 625. Ibid. 17.5.63. 626. Ibid. 10.6.126. 627. Ibid. 2.4.42. 628. Ibid. 4.2.12. 629. Ibid. 17.5.34,35, 8.8.113,114,115, 8.2.52. 630. Ibid. 12.2.68. 631. Ibid. 3.6.189. 632. Ibid. 18.4.226. 633. Ibid. 12.1.65.

4.09 14. A charm to assume whatever form one desires. 634 (Saptaksharavidya). 15. A charm that made alive a dead body from its 635 ashes. 636 16. A bewildering charm. 637 17. A charm to fix men on the spot. 638 18. A charm to sub-due snakes. 639 19. A charm to conquer earth-quake, clouds etc. 20. A bhwildering science (Mohinividya) by which 640 a king of the woods became conquer. 21. An ape by a certain charm is said to have showed Nishchayadatta, a Vidyadhara clinging to the neck 641 of his beloved. Gods, goblins and ghosts were propitiated by charms to give the persons supernatural powers. Under this catagory we may mention the following charms : A. A charm to take the aid of a pishacha to get a 642 wound healed is mentioned. 2. A chant to obtain air-going power by a ceremony in a circle in which a man was killed and offered 643 to the god of wealth. 634. Nirnaya Sagar 12.7.165. 635. Ibid. 12.9.22. 636. Ibid. 10.8.81. 637. Ibid. 12.5.66-69, 5.3.199. 638. Ibid. 639. Ibid. 3.6.189. 640. Ibid. 8.3.110-112. 641. Ibid. 7.3.225. 642. Ibid. 6.2.164-167. 643. Ibid. 7.4.59-72.

410 644 3. A spell by which god Swamikumara was propitiated. 4. A spell by which a Brahmin took the aid of a 645 pishacha and became rich and happy. 5. A bewildering charm obtained by propitiating 646 the goddess Durga. 6. A Brahmin propitiated Agni and gave Guhachandra 647 a charm. 7. A charm that brought to life Anangrati, the 648 daughter of King Mahavaraha. A book containing these charms or spells is called 649 as mantrapustika. Magical Transformations Then we come to the various magical transformations that have often been mentioned in the stories of witches and magic from the Kathasaritsagara It is peculiar to note that in such transformations when a human being is transformed his intelligence is retained. ions are mentioned :The following magical transformat- 1. A butcher's wife fastened a thread round Bhimaaparakramas neck and turned him into a peacock 650 but his intelligence was retained, (An example of animal metamorphosis). 644. Nirnaya Sagar 8.6.237. 645. Ibid. 6.2.163. 646. Ibid. 10.8.81. 647. Ibid. 3.3.121,123,97. 648. Ibid. 9.2.157-159. 649. Ibid. 12.9.22. 650. Ibid. 12.4.276-277.

411 2. By throwing charmed dust a Brahmin was transformed into a buffalo but his intelligence was retained 651 ( smritasana vyalapata). 3. A spell by which a man by throwing a string round his neck was transformed into an ape and another 652 into a bird. 4. A spell by which, by the use of a string, a man was transformed into an ox but his intelligence 653 was retained. 5. Guhachandra propitiated the fire-god and got 654 a charm and then transformed himself into a bee. 6. A magical pill (gulika) that transformed the Brahmin Manaswamin into a maiden and himself into 655 an aged Brahmin. 7. A spell by which Yaugandharayana assumed the 656 appearance of an old-man (sthavira). 8. A spell by which Yaugandharayana transformed 657 Vasantaka into a one-eyed person like a boy, and 658 9. Vasavadatta into a Brahmin woman. 651. Nirnaya Sagar 12.1.44,45. 652. Ibid. 7.3.110-111,17.5.63. 653. Ibid. 7.3.153,154. 654. Ibid. 3.3.104. 655. Ibid. 12.22.25,26. 656. Ibid. 3.2.10-11. 65. Ibid. 3.2.10 and 11. 658. Ibid. "

412 10. By throwing musterd-seeds Vamadatta transformed 659 his wife into a mare. Magical Articles Many magical articles, mostly given by gods to kings, queens, princes, Brahmanas etc., that had supernatural power.) are mentioned in Kathasaritsagara They are :- 1. A magic sword (Khadga) by holding which in the hand men acquired power to go through the air became invisible, invincible (aparajita), would 660 conquer the world or would obtain everything. 2. A magic-ring (anguti), which gave the power of ascertaining all the calamities, such as excessive rain, drought, another which when put in the finger had the power to destroy the effect of poison 661 (vishaghana). 3. A magic-pearl which bestowed all kinds of magic 662 power upon its possesser. 4. A magic-stick (yasti) whatever written by it 663 turned to be true. 5. A magic-vessel (bhajana) that used to give the food 664 wished for; another destroying the person who refused to give alms. 659. Nirnaya Sagar 12.1.54. 660. Ibid. 12.5.52,54,12.14.101,12.1.67,9.6.217 to 219,3.4.110, 2.3.38, 9.2.183, 12.32.37, 12.3.60,61. 661. Ibid. 12.5.61. 662. Ibid. 8.7.140. 663. Ibid. 7.7.50,51. 664. Ibid. 1.3.50. 665. Ibid. 10.5.313,315.

413 6. Magic-shoes (paduka) which when put on gave power 666 to fly through the air. 7. Magic-fruit which when eaten kept off diseases oldage, death and protected beauty. 8. An elixir which rendered men free from old-age 668 and another that protected beauty. 669 9. An inexhausible austible rice-stock 670 10. Magic earth when thrown produced a great mountain. 11. Magic water It 12. Magic throns tt 671 a great river. a great thorny- 672 13. Magic fire dense forest. " set into a great fire. 674 14. An inexhaustable pitcher (sarvakamaprada Bhadraghata). xhaustable 15. Muster seed that when kept on the head and in 675 hand made a man free from fever. 16. Unfadable, imperishable, celestial garlands (divyam malam) and flowers and an unfading lotus 676 that destroyed poison. 17. A necklace (ratnavali) of immortality which when put on made the person beyond thrist, hunger and 677 death. 666. Nirnaya Sagar 133.49. 667. Ibid. 18.4.64,65, 12.14.101, 6.3.55. 668. Ibid. 7.8.9-55. 669. Ibid. 1.7.21. 670. Ibid. 7.5.131 to 149. 671. Ibid. " H kang jian 672. Ibid. " 673. Ibid. 11 11 674. Ibid. 10.1.33. 675. Ibid. 12.6.312. 676. Ibid. 18.4.147,148,17.1.44,9.6.115, 3.2.31, 8.7.135. 677. Ibid. 8.7.137.

414 18. A String of jewels (eakavatim) such that, as 678 long as it was on the neck youth does not wither 19. A jewel of uncommon properties. By holding it in one hand one can render ineffective the best 679 weapon of his enemy. 20. A crest-jewel (chudamani-shikharatna) which put a stop to all grief and another one which protected Padmavati when she was to perform asceticism and yet another that was a talisman against 680 poison, Rakshasa, old-age and disease. 21. A jewelled ornament that conferred the power 681 of becoming a Vidyadhara and other advantages. 22. Magic-chariot (vimana, karniratha) that used to fly through the air, another of a lotus form with 108 wings, and another in the form of a bird. 682 Many such chariots are mentioned. Magical animals The following magical animals that had supernatural powers have been mentioned in the Kathasaritsagara 1. Heavenly-horse. It was air-going, with heavenly speed, shape changing and yet another that used to become a flying chariot%; and another one 683 mounting on which Somaprabha become invincible. 678. Nirnaya Sagar 8.7.139. 679. Ibid. 12.4.135. 680. Ibid. 17.4.116,156,27,17.6.27. 681. Ibid. 17.6.21. 682. Ibid. 12.12.15,17.6.150,131, 14.3.133, 18.5.247,27. 161.84,95, 8.3.120 to 125. 683. Ibid. 12.5.52,54, 10.3.65,66, 14.4.55,56,17.5.102, 17.5.64, 17.6.71 to 72.

415 2. Heavenly-elephant, that used to fly through 684 the air. 685 3. Heavenly-camel that used to go through the air. 4. Magical-gatude that took Lohajangha from Lanka 686 to Mathura. Magical-Ointments Many magical-ointments (padalepa, angaraga, siddhangjana, antardhanajana) antardhana ana) are mentioned, When applied they 687 enabled a man without being tired to walk infinite distance, 688 enabled him to discover unseen and invisible things, made 689 him invisible 690 or exhaled a perfume. There were men who knew the language of all the beasts and birds (mriga pakshinam). Also a parrot that 691 692 knew the four Vedas is mentioned. Women and Magic We have many examples of women who were experts in magic sciences. ught These women were called witches (dakinis) who taugh 693 the magic of moving through the air by eating human flesh. 684. Nirnaya Sagar 7.2.13 to 19, 17.5.24. 685. Ibid. 17.41130. 686. Ibid. 2.5.147-148. 687. Ibid. 18.4.27,19,10.2.65. 688. Ibid. 8.5.86. 689. Ibid. 8.6.75,74,105. 690. Ibid. 18.5.22. 691. Ibid. 9.2.102. 692. Ibid. 10.3.28. 693. Ibid. 3.6.112,113.

416 Turning their hair upwards and observing neckedness these 694 witches practised withch-crafts. We have got many examples of women who were experts in magic-sciences. Kuvalayavati was one such an expert and Kalaratri is mentioned as a past-mistress in sorcery. She used to teach magic powers of witches to ladies. Eating human flesh was a part of such spells and magic. Female-asceties 695 that had the supernatural power of going through the air 696 are also mentioned. This power of travelling in the air (vyomagamamividya) was also taught by one Didhitimat. 697 It was believed that ghosts, goblins and Brahmarakshasas haunt a man. There were men that had the power to counteract them and make a man free from their bad influence. Water spirits are also mentioned. The science regarding the significance of the moles 699 The heavenly on the human body has been mentioned. voice has often been mentioned. It is called as 'bharati' 'asharirawani Vachah etc. The author has 'divyawak', 'asharirawan utalised this heavenly voice for the progress of many a stories from Kathasaritsagara, wherein the future of the person or 700 instructions to him are conveyed. 694. Nirnaya Sagar 3.6.50. 695. Ibid. 3.6.104, 3.6.114,137. 696. Ibid. 10.9.227. 697. Ibid. 10.3.106. 698. Ibid. 18.2.40 to 46, 12.4.143. 699. Ibid. 12.4.5. 700. Ibid. 3.2.190,200, 6.8.242, 8.1.20, 5.3.258,6.8.117, 8.3.95.