Marriage in ancient India

Marriage was not considered as a mere contract but was a spiritual union and a holy bond of unity brought out by providence. Marriage was desired for the continuity of the line. The institution of marriage had a kind of religious and social sanction and was considered most sacred. A religious belief, that unless a that unless a son was born to a man he would not obtain swarga and a sonless man does 95 not attain the world of bliss, existed in those days. HEGRO? To seduce the wife of an other, was considered to be infamous and it was believed that one would fall in the 92. Nirnaya Sagar 18.1.84. 93. Ibid. 6.7.112 and 113. 94. See Mujumdar R.C. Op.cit., Vol. V (The struggle for the Empire) p.478. 95. Nirnaya Sagar 9.5.150, 12.26.21.

96 320 It was ocean of hell (pataya narakarnave) for doing so. considered an unrighteous act, adharma and hence if a 97 person abandoned his wife, he was to be punished. 99 It was also believed that by bestowing a daughter in marriage (kanyadanam) a father obtained some fruit (phalam 98 punyam) in the next world. It was as well believed that a man avoids sin by giving a daughter in marriage. A daughter should also be given to a suitable husband. If through folly she is made over to one not suitable, it is like learning imparted to one not fit to receive it and cannot 100 therefore tend to glory or merit but only to regret. No Provincial or Regional barriers Provincial and regional barriers did not exist. We have many references in the Kathasaritsagara wherein inter-marriages between people of different and distant provinces are mentioned. Thus we see that Surasena, a prince of Sravasti _101 was married to Sushena from Malva. Chandravati the wife 102 of a vassal of Dakshinapatha was again from Malva. It is mentioned that Devallatta and Devaswami married a daughter 96. Nirnaya Sagar 8.5.55. 97. Ibid. 3.1.78. 98. Ibid. 6.2.50, 12.17.23. 99. Ibid. 5.1.38. 100. Ibid. 5.1.28 & 26. 101. Ibid. 16.1.25. 102. Ibid. 12.31.6.

103 321 104 from a distant land. And again Brahmadatta of Varanasi was married to Varahadatta, a merchants son from Mathura. King Vikramaditya married Gunavati and Chandravati, the princesses of Kataha and Suvarna dvipa respectivelly. 105 We have no definite evidence regarding the age of marriage in the Kathasaritsagara It appears that marriage of a girl and a boy of equal age were contracted. We have references from which it can be said that child-marriage was prevalent in those days. Late marriage was considered harmful. It was believed that if a daughter reaches puberty, before marriage, her relations go to hell and she would be considered an out-caste (vrashali). If married, her bride-groom was called 106 the hushand of an out-caste (vrashalipati). It is also (vrashalipat mentioned that grown-up girls could not be kept in ones house for a maiden of good family who does not obtain a proper position is like a song out of tune%3 B when heard of by the ears, even by one unconnected with her, she causes 107 distesss. Forms of Marriage Because of the diversity of customs and castes various forms of marriage appear to have been prevalent in the 103. Nirnaya Sagar 4.1.68.18.5.92. 104. Ibid. 7.3.99,100. 105. Ibid. 18.5.25. 106. Ibid. 5.1.38 to 40. 107. Ibid. 11

Fiduohhod. 322 contemporary society as described in the Kathasaritsagara The forms of marriage mentioned therein are usually of three typesmarriage arranged by the parents of both of the parties, Svayamxara and Gandharva marriage. The most common form of marriage was that arranged by parents of both the parties. But the Gandharva form of marriage also appears to be equally common. Another form of the nature of a svayamvara was a marriage by arranging a contest. We have also a solitary example of marriage by purchase and the Rakshasa form of marriage wherein King Virabhata of Tamralipti is mentioned to have carried many princesses by force and then married them with due rites. And again we find that King Vikramaditya forced the king of Kalings to offer his daughter to him and then married her with due 109 108 rites. In the Rakshasa form of marriage the bride-groom abdicated the bride with or without the consent of the bride. The Basis of Choice : Generally marriage was established between two 110 families of the same caste and rank (kula). .Marriage with a woman below ones rank (atulyakula sambandha) was not 108. Nirnaya Sagar 8.1.1 to 64. 109. Ibid. 18.5.26 to 47. 110. Ibid. 12.7.163.

323 encouraged. Even a washerman (dhavaka) is mentioned to have expressed that a girl equal in family, wealth and 111 occupation should be selected. (Kulenarthenakarmana). At one place it is stated that the desirable requisites of a suitor are youth, good look, noble birth, good 113 112 disposition, wealth etc. But preference is given to youth, age and noble birth. In the choice of a girl in marriage the following things were given much importance; shape, 114 beauty, refinement, age and birth. It is also mentioned that Rupashikha, the daughter of a Rakshasa named Agnishikha, tells him that her future husband Sringabhuja was matchleas in gift of beauty, birth, character and age and hence he 115 was the most suitable choice. But at times wealth was the 116 main factor in determining choice. Sagotra marriage was not possible in those days 117 and therefore Kalavati could not be married to Sunitha. But it appears that Anuloma and Pratiloma marriages took 118 place in those days. Mayavati of King Malayasimha is said 111. Nirnaya Sagar 12.12.13. 112. Ibid. 6.4.29 (Vayorupam kula sheelam vittam chati vayash shata) 113. Ibid. 6.4.29, 12.10.14 (tatadyam vayoovamshadikantata) 114. Ibid. 9.5.60 (Rupalavanya vinaya vyasachakulamcha) 115. Ibid. 7.5.60 ((Rupakula shilavayogunaih). Also see Mehta R.N. Pre-Buddhist India p.280. 116. Ibid. 10.6.83. 117. Ibid. 8.2.196 and other examples are under 13.2.214 16.2.86,175,185. 118. Ibid. 16.2.108, 18.4.74 and 77.

119 324 to have married a Kaivartaka (fisherman) youth. This marriage was contracted by advancing the argument that he was Brahmin in the former birth. And again we find 120 Kurungi marrying a Chandala boy. But it is also mentioned that a certain prince from Ujjayini married a Chandala 121 amitva Chandala-an example of Kshatriya girl and also Aramitvardhan married the daughter of a 122 Chandala marriage. Also Unmadini, a rich merchant's daughter married the C-in-C 123 of the King and also Tejasvita, a rich merchant's daughter was married to King Adityasena - a Kshatriya 124 Vaisya marriage. In the couversation between the Vetala and King Trivikramasena of Pratishthana the king says that a Kshat ishatriya woman cannot be married to a Sudra: A Vaisya or a Brahman even though suitable, cannot be considered as suitable choice for a Kshatriya as they belong to another caste; only a Kshatriya named Khadgadhara was therefore 125 suitable for the daughter of King Viradeva of Avanti. 119. Nirnaya Sagar 16.2.112 to 145. 120. Ibid. 16.2.108. 121. Ibid. 16.2.86. 122. Ibid. 16.2.201,200 123. Ibid. 3.1.78. 124. Ibid. 3.4.79. 125. Ibid. 12.16.35 to 36.

325 A daughter with auspicious marks was called a 126 Sulakshana while a daughter with inauspicious marks was 127 called a Kulakshana. ** Beauty was given so much importance in the choice of a husband that a good-looking yet poor husband was to be preferred to an ugly one even though he may be emperor 128 of the whole earth. h_ Flat-nose (chipitagranam) ladies were not generally 129 liked by men. Thus it appears that beauty, birth, character and age were the requisites of a suitor. If these were not observed people repented. Thus Devadatta is said to have repented over his marriage with a merchants daughter and remarked that it is my marriage with a woman below my rank that is in fault. She was found to be an adultress. In spite of the above requisites we find that young girls were married to old but wealthy persons. Asokamala was married for money to a Brahmin named 130 126. Nirnaya Sagar 3.1.68. 127. Ibid. 3.1.71. 128. Ibid. 12.36.19. 129. Ibid. 10.5.15. 130. Ibid. 4.1.80. (atulyakula sambandha).

326 Hathasarman who was an ugly grim-visaged (ghoramkha) man. Afterwards, since she did not approve him, she ran away 131 from his home. Thus it seems that no hard and fast restriction on marriage was there. Apart from the 'anploma' and 'pratiloma' type of marriages already discussed further inter-caste marriages can be pointed here. Thus a Brahman Brahman Mahipala married Bandhumati, the daughter of King Taravarma. 133 | Shaktideva a Brahman married the daughter of a cobbler (dhavaka). Devadatta married a merchant's daughter and 134 132 King Kanakvarsha married a Bhilla girl. King Vikramasimha 135 married a courtesan named Kumudini. Adityasena married his 136 137 daughter to his Purohita. These and many other instances go to prove that inter-caste marriages were in vogue in 138 those days. 139 In arranging marriages the elders consulted each other. The consent or inclination of the young ones was not given much importance. Many a times against their will 140 Yet instances wherein they the youngsters had to marry. 131. Nirnaya Sagar 9.2.35-36-38-42. 132. Ibid. 9.6.34. 133. Ibid. 5.3.156,157,185. 134. Ibid. 9.5.231,232. 135. Ibid. 12.2.3 and 52. 136. Ibid. 3.4.203. 137. Ibid. 3.4.80, 12.34.35, 18.4.74,77. 138. Inter-caste marriages, also, were in vogue in India during the pre-mustim period: Mujumdar R.C.Op.Cit., Vol. V., p.478. 139. Nirnaya Sagar 14.4.169, 18.4.254. 140. Ibid. 18.4.158, 166, 5.1.155.

What about toogescofuas 327 141 In made their own choice are also found in the Kathasaritsagara such cases the consent of their parents was taken afterwards. Thus we see that princes Madanalekha first fell in love with a valiant Brahmin named Asokadatta and afterwards with the consent of her father the marriage 142 At another place it is mentioned that a took place. youth tells his lady love that the previous sanction of his parent for their marriage was necessary. 1:43 A We also find that forced marriages were repudiated by the youngsters and at times we find them rebelling against the above custom. Thus Asokamala even though regularily married to a youth did not approve the choice. She afterwards deserted him and is said to have married a 144 boy of her own choice. In case of Sulochana her father was compelled to give her to a beautiful hermit who was 145 her lover. Again a Brahmin youth did not approve the choice of his parents and therefore is said to have run away from his home and married another girl of his choice. Kamalalochana eloped with Kusumayudha since she 146 was deeply in love with him. (pritavam staparasparam) 141. Nirnaya Sagar 13.1.63 and 64. 142. Ibid. 5.2.170. 143. Ibid. 4.2.170. 144. Ibid. 9.2.34,36 to 49. 145. Ibid. 6.3.93. 146. Ibid. 18.4.253.

328 King and Marriage It appears that the custom of offering beautiful daughter first to the king was probably in rogue in some 148 He was probably considered as a parts of northern-India. fit person to have her. Thus Devasena a merchant from Sravasthi first offered his singularly beautiful daughter 148 Unamadini to his king. The beautiful daughter Tajasvita was straightway offered by her father to the King saying 149 that he is the only fit person to possess her. At times the kings even interfered in matters regarding marriage or even went to the extent of giving monetary help to their subjects. Thus in the case of the unchaste wife of a Brahmin named Sarvavarman, a young man of good family, King Udayana is said to have banished her and gave the man out of pity, much wealth, to marry another 150 lady. Also Simhaparakrama is said to have taken divorce from his first wife and married Simhasri with the consent 151 of the King. Also a certain king of Pataliputra went to the extent of compelling Dharmagupta, a certain rich merchant of that city, to give his daughter to Guhachandra 147. Nirnaya Sagar 12.24.12. 148. Ibid. 3.1.66. 149. Ibid. 3.4.75-80. 1501 Ibid. 4.3.26. 151. Ibid. 4.3.49 and 50.

329 another merchant by the use of force. The house of Dharmagupta was surrounded by the city police under his 153 arders. The kings at times used force and tried to lay their 153 hands on the fair sex. King Indradatta thus laid his land 154 on a merchant's wife and then repented when she was dead. In case of marriages between the members of royal families the custom of sending ambassadors to seek the hand of a king's daughter in marriage, was in vogue. 155 Innumerable instances of this can be cited from the Kathasaritsagara These kings went out for such marriage with their ministers 156 and army. At times we find that kings out of political considerations offered their daughters to other kings even 157 without the consent of their daughters. Slave girls were the property of the king. He, 158 could take them away wherever he wanted. 152. Nirnaya Sagar 3.3.80 to 81. 153. Ibid. 6.6.147 to 148, 9.4.234, 3.1.78. 154. Ibid. 6.8.19. 155. Ibid. 12.34.94 to 111, 6.4.22, 8.1.125, 18.1.91,100, 12.14.32, 3.2.71 etc. 156. Ibid. 3.2.71. 157. Ibid. 18.1.96-98,101, 18.4.75. 158. Ibid. 3.1.76.

Marriage Settled by Parents 330 Marriages were settled by parents and were endogamous, i.e. within the caste. Efforts were made to keep the family pure through marriage. Therefore caste and rank were given importance. The Brahmin Vasudatta was married to a 159 girl from a family equal in rank to his own (sadry sha kulata) by his father. Thus girls equal in family, wealth and occupation were mostly selected. But sagotra marriages were avoided. Therefore Kalavati, the daughter of Amila could not be given to Sunitha because she belonged to the 160 same family. Svayamvara Marriage We may now consider the Svayamvara form of marriage. In this marriage girls, when of proper age, chose husband publicly, from amongst a number of suitors. The previlege of holding such a Svayamvara was bestowed specifically on maidens from the royal families. The Kathasaritsagara mentions many such marriages. The Princes of Simhaladvipa was thus married 161 of to King Vikramaditya Ujjayini. Srutasena was thus selected 162 by the daughter of a rich merchant. Sometimes good looks 159. Nirnaya Sagar 12.7.163. 160. Ibid. 8.2.196. 161. Ibid. 18.2.219. 162. Ibid. 6.7.71. 4

331 determined the choice of a princess. Thus daughter Anangrati of King Viradeva of Avandi, when requested to select her husband in a Svayamvara, modestly told him that she should be given in marriage to a good-looking young man who is 163 perfect master of one art. Marriage by Contest Another type of the Svayamvara form of marriage that was prevalent in those days was marriage by contest. In this type, the bride generally requested her parent to give 164 her in marriage to a person who would win the contest. Defeat in argument, excelling the bride in music, dancing and singing, spending a night in the chamber of the princess, possession of knowledge, or music or heroism, e bravery, handsomness combined with splendid accomplishment, seeing and describing 'a city' seen by the girl etc. are some of the conditions laid down for the contest to find out the right suitor. The Kathasaritsagara is full of many such examples. It is said that Somaprabha, daughter of a minister named Devaswani, tells him that he must give her in marriage to a man 163. Nirnaya Sagar 16.12.16 to 18. 164. This type of Svayamvara form of marriage existed during the Kushana period. There used to be testes for asserting proficiency in the use of arms and even wrestling bouts to choose a suitor were conducted: Puri B.N. India under the Kushanas p.90-91.

165 332 possessed of heroism and knowledge or magic power. Another Anangarati, the daughter of King Mahavaraha of Surapura, is said to have told her father that she should be given in 166 marriage to a man who was brave, handsome and accomplished. Again the Vidyadhari Gandharvadatta has declared that, whosoever was well skilled in music to play on lyre and it/ sing perfectly in three scales a song in praise of Vishnu, 167 shall be her husband. Elsewhere it is mentioned that King Udayatunga of Ahichchattra publically announced that he would give his daughter Udayavati to the first Brahmin or 168 Kshatriya who conqured her in argument (vadeparajaytaisham tasmai dadami). A certain king of Karkotaka city is said to have announced through his servants by the beat of drums that 'whosoever, Brahmin or Kshatriya, wishes tomorrow morning to marry the kings daughter, should spend a night 169 in her chamber. And again princess Kanakarekha of King Paropakarin was prepared to marry a Brahmin or a Kshatriya 170 who has succeeded in seeing the 'Golden City.' Also the choice of Somaprabha the daughter of the minister named Harisyamin, was to fall on a man possessed of heroism and 165. Nirnaya Sagar 12.12.9. 166. Ibid. 9.2.95. 167. Ibid. 14.2.12-13. 168. Ibid. 12.5.67. 169. Ibid. 3.4.322. 170. Ibid. 5.1.42.

171 knowledge of magic power. of 1 333 We have got a peculiar example of a warder's wife named Manapara who was won over from him by a merchant in a duel-fight sitting on a horse with a long sphere were in 172 his hand. The Gandhara Marriage The third The third type of marriage is the Gandharva marriage. In this marriage the bride and bride-groom made their own choice without the knowledge of their parents and are married without rites or ceremonies. But at times a regubar marriage ceremony is performed later probably to ensure social sanction. At one place it is even argued by Prahasta, the minister of King Suryaprabha, that the Gandharva marriage 173 is the best of all marriages in the world. This form appears to be popular. Innumerable are our 174 references to this form of marriage throughout the Kathasaritsagara The marriages between the Brahmin Vidusaka and a Vidyadhari 175 176 Bhadra, between Indivarasena and Khadgadamstra, between 177 Bhimabhatta and Hamsavali, between Nischayadatta and 171. Nirnaya Sagar 12.12.9. 172. Ibid. 7.8.121 to 127. 173. Ibid. 8.2.217. 174. Ibid. 8.2.217, 8.2.259, 12.9.91, 1.3.67, 3.4.220, 6.4.17, 1.6.14, 1.6.14, 12.1.14 @tc. 175. Ibid. 3.4.220. 176. Ibid. 7.8.143. 177. Ibid. 12.7.239.

334 178 179 Anuragapara, between Madanavega and Kalinga sena, between ✓ 180 Maravahanadatta the hero of Kathasaritsagara and many princesses, were all gandharva marriages. Ebopement Marrage and giving up unfaithful wives. Marrage We have many instances of elopement and marriage. 181 Vasavadatta eloped with Udayana. Madiravati the daughter of a Kshatriya eloped with a Brahmin boy and then married 182 him. Also a Brahmin named Kusumayudha from Chandrapur 183 married his fiance Kamalalochana. Sa sankavati Mrigankadatta first carried away Sasankawati and then married her with due 184 . rites. And again the daughter of a Kshatrixa from Sankhapur in Nishadadesha who had fallen in love with a Brahmin boy, is said to have eloped with him and afterwards married him. Ana/gaprabha, the daughter of King Harivara also eloped 186 with her dance-teacher named Labdhavara. Even though giving up one's wife was considered an offence we come across such cases throught the Kathasaritsagara 178. Nirnaya Sagar 7.3.186. 179. Ibid. 6.4.17. 180. Ibid. 8.2.217. 181. Ibid. 2.5.27,21,22. 182. Ibid. 13.1.54. 183. Ibid. 18.4.273. 184. Ibid. 12.36.86, 188-193. 185. Ibid. 13.1.214. 186. Ibid. 9.2.274-275.

335 1 e Generally adultrous, wicked and untrustworthy women were 187 abandoned. They were at the same time punished by their husbands. The nose %% ear of such a lady was cut off and 188 she was then driven out. Devasena of Pataliputra thus out off the nose of his adulterous wicked wife. Simhaparakrama took divorce from his first wife Kalna Kaymakari, , gave her 189 subsistence allowance, and then married Simhashri. The same was the fate of the unchaste wife of a Brahmin Sarava. varman, 190 whose second marriage was endorsed by the king. We have got a peculiar instance of a C-in-c who abandoned his beautiful wife in a temple to his master to marry 191 her. Suicide Young men and women who were frustrated in love committed suicide by hanging themselves. We have got a solitary example of a Brahmin youth who committed suicide 192 by hanging himself under a tree outside the city of Vishala. vobry 187. Nirnaya Sagar 12.20.15. Al-Biruni mentions that the punishment of the wife for adultry was more strict than that provided in the Smriti Law, Mujumdar R.C. op. cit., Vol. V., p.480. 188. Ibid.3.5.49. 189. Ibid. 4.3.49-50. The superseded wife, the author of Smriti Chandrika, expalins, must be given a sum equal to what is spent on the second marriage, thus her right to maintenance is accepted. Smriti ChandrikaII(572-575 190. Ibid.4.3.26. 191. Ibid. 3.1.78. 192. Ibid. 13.1.71 and 72.

336 Marriage by Purchase We have probably a solitary reference to this form of marriage in Kathasaritsagara In this form of marriage a wife was obtained for money paid to her father's family by the husband or his father. In ancient India this money was 193 called Sulka. We are told that King Ugrabhatta was attracted by the beauty, of Lasyavati, the beautiful daughter of a dancer and actor Lasaka. Immediately after her dance was over he gave Lasaka much wealth and took Lasyavati into 194 his harem. Child Marriages We have also references to child marriages in the Kathasaritsagara In such cases the daughter used to remain in the house of her father and when of proper age, was sent to her husband. During the pre-muslim period in India compulsory marriage 195 of girls at an early age was common. This same practice was probably continued during the 11 th Century India as is seen from the examples cited below. Thus we find that a Brahmin named Devaswami was married to a girl when she was 196 a mere child. The child-wife of Brahmin Agnisharma remained in the house of her father since she was a child (baleti 193. Puri B.N. Op. cit., p.91. 194. Nirnaya Sagar 12.7.40. 195. Mujumdar R.C. Op. cit., Vol. V. (Struggle for the Empire) p.478-479. 196. Nirnaya Sagar 18.5.92.

197 337 parinita). Again Madana sena was also living in the house 198 of her father even though married. Son-in-Law living in the house This custom of keeping the son-in-law in their own houses by parents of the girl seems to be prevalent in those days. Generally if the father-in-law was a rich man and had no son or if the family of the girl was very poor this custom was followed. It is said that certain three Brahmins 199 from Kanakhala were residing in their father-in-law's house. Polygamous marriage has also been once mentioned in the Kathasaritsagara King Naravahandatta, the hero of Kathasaritsagara is said to have married Mandaradevi and five other Vidyadhara maidens 200 at one and the same time. Similar is the example of a 201 Vidyadhara named Saktideva. Polyandry Marriages between Brahmana Families Marriages between brothers of one family with sisters of another family also took place. Thus we find that a Brahmin named Bhojaka from Chinchani married his three daughters to the three sons of a Brahmin from Kanakhala 202 197. Nirnaya Sagar 18.5.105. 198. Ibid. 12.17.20. 199. Ibid. 1.3.11. 200. Ibid. 15.2.41. 201. Ibid. 5.3.278.

338. and again Devasharma of Pataliputra is said to have given 203 his two pupils his two daughters. The Procedure 204 205 An auspicious day or a moment (lagnavela) in consultation with the astrologer (mauhartika) was fixed for the marriage ceremony. A girl was approved after the auspicious marks (sulakshnam) on her body were examined. If she was inauspicious (Kulakshana), she was rejected. Thus Undamadini was rejected by King Devesena for for 206 the unauspicious marks on her body. An auspicious moment was thus fixed for the marriage of Madiravati with a 207 Kshatriya youth from Ujjayini. Again Vasudatta is said to have married on an auspicious day fixed by the astrologers 208 (mahurtikas), and also king Mahavaraha of Surapura summoned the astrologers to find an auspicious moment for his 209 daughter's marriage with a Kshatriya. Celebrations Preliminary to Marriage On the fixed day accompanied by an auspicious band , of musicians, the girls used to go to their Matrukula 203. Nirnaya Sagar 2.2.9. 204. Ibid. 8.7.133,140, 9.2.142, 4.2.133, 12.13.16. 205. Ibid. 3.1.68,71. 206. Ibid. 3.1.68,71. 207. Ibid. 13.1.69. 208. Ibid. 4.2.133. 209. Ibid. 9.2.139.

(339 210 (the temple of mothers or family deity) for worship. At times the custom of worshipping the God of Love (Kamadeva) 211 is also referred to. 2 These were great rejoicings in the house of both the bride and the bride-groom. With the beat of drums 212 to the accompaniment of music and the bride-groom with his relations and friends went in a procession (Janyayatra), ( Janyayatra ), entered specially erected pavalion (vivahagraham) which was full of various musical instruments and were then entertained with food, drink etc. The bride was generally shut up in the house of her father. We have also references 214 to marriage parties which proceeded, to distant places Ladies adorned the girls with the bridal-dress (drutavadhuvesham) and ornaments according to the custom. 215 All these things were available in the market. It is said that Shashakavati was solemly adorned with the bridal shakava rati 216 ornaments. Also Mahalika was decorated by her friends as 217 per the order of her mother. Again in the case of Kamachuda mani we are fold that bracelets were fastened on her hands 210. Nirnaya Sagar 13.1.128. 211. Ibid. 13.1.128. 212. Ibid. 13.1.69. 213. Ibid. 6.8.254-256. 214. Ibid. 18.4.159, 18.4.268,269, 8.2.226 and 231. 215. Ibid. 18.4.262 (vivahopakaranam). 216. Ibid. 12.36.189. 217. Ibid. 8.2.295. -

340 218 by Danu and other ladies. Again it is mentioned that Madanamanchuka was adorned with heavenly ornaments 219 (divyayvibhushanayah) sent by her father. hanayah) At one place we get a detailed description of the various things and hurried proceeding going on in the wedding hall in the house of a Kshatriya from Vishala; one part of it was fully of raiment; in another ornaments were piled up in one corner cooked food was provided, altar was ready in yet another corner; in one place were many female slaves (geetadasikam) and while in another professional mimics were singing; a third corner was occupied by the 220 Brahmanas waiting for the auspicious moment. It is abundantly clear from various references from the Kathasaritsagara that the custom of adorning the bride with marriage thread was in vogue. It is mentioned that Madanamunchaka 221 was adorned with heavenly (divya) marriage-thread and also Kamachudamani had put on the marriage thread in her marriage 222 with Suryaprabha. Before putting on the marriage-thread the bridetake 223 ^ groom was made to bath. 218. Nirnaya Sagar 8.7.133-140. 219. Ibid. 6.8.250.1, 25.1. 220. Ibid. 13.1.160 to 162. 221. Ibid. 6.8.251.1 222. Ibid. 8.7.133. 223. Ibid. 9.1.223.1.

$ 341 An altar (vedi) in the middle of which fire was being kindled, was prepared in the wedding-hall. Marriage Rites The marriage took place with due rites according to Vedic custom. Innumerable are our references to these rites 224 throughout the Kathasaritsagara Afterwards both, the bride and the bride-groom, have taken a bath and put on the marriagethread and the dress and brought to the altar (vedi) by the fathers, they (vadhuvarayoh vadhuvarayoh )) ascended. (samarylha), on the 225 auspicious moment fixed by the astrologers amidst the cheering of the sacred mantras, the altar where fire was 226 burning. Then garlands were thrown round the neck of both. Then both circumscribed (pradakshneagn(a) the fire, keeping it on their right. Afterwards the auspicious parched grains were thrown three times in the fire (lajjiyahoma ) or (Homa lajjya) and at the same time presents and gifts to the bridegroom were given. Then the couple tasted honey and wine. This out-line of the marriage rites coincides in general 228 with that given in the Grahyasutra trag 224. Nirnaya Sagar 12.4.257, 7.9.214, 9.1.180, 8.6.247,9.1.223. 8.7.133, 9.5.88 to 102, 8.1.62 to 64, 13.1.214, 12.27.49-50, 12.36.188-193. 225. Ibid. 6.8.254 to 256. 226. Ibid. 7.5.112. 227. Ibid. 8.7.133 to 140, 3.2.79 to 81. 227 228. In the Grihyasutra see AGS (1-7, 1-21) the general procedure followed is given as follows%; Pouring the ghee in the fire, panigvahana agniparinayana alongwith asma rohana, lajaanjalikakshepa, keshamochana, saptapadi, jala suchana and druva spatar shidarshana.

i 342 The above marriage rites were followed in the marriage between Naravahnadatta and alamkaravati%;B between Mrigankadatta and Shashankavati, between Suryaprabha and Kamachandaand in many more marriages mentioned in Kathasaritsagara mam 230 Then probably, as was the custom, a ring on which her name was carved, was put on the finger of the bride. 231 This was followed by the entertainment of relations and guests with meals, garlands, robes and ornaments. When this was going on, bards continuously sang and on the auspicious music consort of beautiful girls (nartaki samuha) 232 233 was arranged. Excellent Brahamanas were also honoured. It is said that in the marriage between Suryaprabha and Kamachudamani the above things were followed. In the marriage between Udayana and Padmavati it is stated that garments 234 and ornaments were distributed, songs were sung by minstrels 235 and dancing girls danced. Also in the marriage between 236 Sundersena and Mandaravati Bhilla girls danced. Night Marriages We have got a solitary reference to a marriage that took place during night. It was because of this that Kanaka- 229. Nirnaya Sagar 8.7.130, 9.5.88 to 102, 6.8.254 to 256, 13.36.190 to 196, 3.2.78 to 81, 7.9.213 to 216. 230. Ibid. 18.5.164, 10.7.30. 231. Ibid. 9.1.183, 290, 8.1.33. 232. Ibid. 6.8.262.1, 9.1.224.1, 12.34.381, 8.7.150. 233. Ibid. 8.1.33. 234. Ibid. 8.7.133 to 140. 235. Ibid. 6.2.85. 236. Ibid. 12.34.347.

343 manjari could not be detected. She also had a garment 237 ✓ (nerangi) that covered her face at that time. After the above ceremonies were over the newly married couple probably used to enter the inner apartment which was tastefully decorated. Women followed them to this 238 apartment. System of Puadal It a moot question whether the system of purdah was in vogue in India at the time of Somadeva. But we have references in the Kathasaritsagara which to a certain extent may incline us to believe that this system was in vogue in northern-India. The words 'nerangi' 'avagunthana have been used in this connection. Thus it is mentioned that Kanakamangari had a garment (nerangi) that covered her face at the time of her skamandari 239 marriage. Also when Guhachandra, went to a courtesan she 240 spoke to him after lifting up her veil with her left hand. Again a certain youth is said to have observed the face of 241 his bride after lifting her veil (avagunthana).