Some Popular Allegorical Plays in Sanskrit literature

[Note: Only the printed texts are noted here, quite briefly. For a full list of allegorical plays, see Dr.V. Raghavan, Number of Rasas, Adyar Library and Research Centre, Madras, 1975.]

(i) Āgamaḍambara or Ṣaṇmatanāṭaka of Jayanta Bhaṭṭa^[1] (10 C.A.D)

In four Acts, Jayanta presents that the exponents of the six schools (Buddhism, Jainism, Nīlāmbara, Kāpālika, Kālamukha and the Vaiṣṇava Pāñcarātra not based on the authority of the Vedas) are defeated in debate by the siddhāntiṃs of Nyāya philosophy coupled with Śaiva religion. In the end the Nyāya-Śaiva teacher makes the pronouncement that all paths, when rightly followed, lead to the same goal.

(ii) Prabodhacandrodaya of Kṛṣṇamiśra^[2] (11 C.A.D)

In this play, man’s ennobling himself is well brought out. Viveka and Sumati are the hero and heroine; the opposing side is made up of vicious qualities like Mahāmoha and Durmati. The aim and end of Viveka and his followers is to tear asunder the veil of temptation created by māyā or avidyā (illusion), destroy and overcome Mahāmoha and other degrading qualities and thus finally achieve mukti to Jīva.

(iii) Saṅkalpasūryodaya by Veṅkaṭanātha^[3] (13-14 C.A.D.)

Saṅkalpasūryodaya of Veṅkaṭanātha is an answer to Kṛṣṇamiśra’s Probodhacandradaya and establishes Viśiṣṭādvaita philosophy. The play expounds the Supremacy of Viṣṇu and projects Viṣṇubhakti as the proper means to obtain mokṣa. It makes explicit the tenets of Viśiṣṭādvaita even to a layman.

(iv) Moharājaparājaya by Yaśaḥpāla^[4] (13 C.A.D.)

This Jain allegory in five acts brings out the activities of Jainism with all its regulation during king Kumārapāla’s reign. Moharājaparājaya deals with the conquest of king Delusion.

(v) Vivekavijaya by Rāmānuja Kavi^[5] (not earlier than 13 C.A.D.)

The triumph of Viveka over passions, is the theme of the play Vivekavijaya in ten Acts and it is chiefly an allegorical drama of bhakti cult of Vaiṣṇavas. It is a unique drama of Bhaktirasa in which Viveka (wisdom) wins over Moha (infatuation) following the path of devotion. The inner struggle between refined tendencies and vulgar tendencies forms the core of the plot of the play.

(vi) Jñanasūryodaya of Vādicandrasūri^[6] (15 C.A.D.)

This is one of the rare dramas of allegorical type dealing with Jain philosophy in five acts. The theme of the drama reflects and resembles in many respects the drama Prabodhacandrodaya of Kṛṣṇamiśra. The drama clearly depicts that the awakening of the soul results in the enlightening of the mind.

(vii) Amṛtodaya by Gokulanātha^[7] (16 C.A.D.)

This is an allegorical play depicting the problems of saṃsāra. The various stages of the life of Jīvātman from creation to annihilation is narrated here.

(viii) Bhāvanāpuruṣottama by Ratnakheṭa Śrīnivāsadīkṣita^[8] (15-16 C.A.D.)

One of the rare allegorical dramas, it contains the combination of poetic-philosophic charm. This drama was written by Śrīnivāsa Dīkṣita to propagate devotion through which the Supreme may be realised. The drama allegorises the idea that through contemplation (Bhāvanā), Jīva can attain the Supreme (Puruṣottama) with the help of devotion (Bhakti) and spiritual knowledge (Yogavidyā).

(ix) Jīvanmuktikalyāṇa by Nallādīkṣita^[9] (17 C.A.D.)

Advaitic concepts of personified in this drama quite ingeniously. King Jīva in association with queen Buddhi undergoes sufferings in the waking state; but he experiences the Ānanda (Bliss) in the deep-sleep state. Desiring to experience this Bliss forever, the king vanquishes the six inborn enemies. Thereby he reaches the fourth state; with Sādhana-sampatti and Guru’s grace he attains liberations (Mukti).

(x, xi) Jīvānandana^[10] and Vidyāpariṇaya^[11] of Ānandarāya Makhin (17-18 C.A.D.)

Jīvānandana is a literary medical play. Jīvātman is the hero of the play trying to preserve his bodily health with the help of Vijñāna (minister). Good health helps in the realisation of Supreme Bliss which is the final goal of human life.

This play can be understood and deeply appreciated only by those who possess good knowledge of Sanskrit literature and medical science.

The plot of Vidyāpariṇaya is the marriage of Jīvātman (individual soul) and Vidyā (spiritual knowledge). The play is an illustration of the Supremacy of Śiva and Advaita philosophy. It advocates Śivabhakti as the only mārga to attain mukti.

(xii) Pracaṇḍarāhūdaya by Ghanaśyāma^[12] (18 C.A.D.)

This is one of the unique allegorical dramas of a fine variety. The play-wright belonged to the family of Advaitins but was influenced by Madhva’s Dvaita philosophy which is clearly brought out in his work. The work extols the Mādhva preceptor Satyapriya Svāmi. The main characters of the play are living personages of the poet’s time and the other characters are chiefly of allegorical nature, namely, virtues and vices.

(xiii) Dharmoddharaṇa by Durgesvara Paṇḍita^[13] (18 C.A.D.)

In five acts, this play presents the Dvāpara age as the hero, contending against the Kali, the anti-hero. Virtues like dharma and dāna associate with the former and different vices are found on the side of the latter. The play is a socio-religious allegory. The theme of the play is about the revival of the Hindu religion which was disappearing because of social and religious unrest of that period.

The play refers to reinstating of the Mahākāleśvar temple at Avanti and the Gṛṣṇeśvara temple on the banks of river Godāvarī.

(xiv) Sivanārāyaṇa-bhañja-mahodaya-nāṭaka by Narasiṃhamiśra^[14]

The author lived under the patronage of Śiva Nārāyaṇa Bhāñja, Rāja of Keonjhar. An allegorical play from Orissa, the work ends with Jīvanmukti.

(xv) Vimukti of Dr. V. Raghavan^[15] (20 C.A.D.)

Vimukti, a humourous allegorical play, in two acts, deals with the Soul (husband) overpowered by Māyā (wife). Caught up with matter and harassed by mind and senses, the Soul yearns for liberation and obtains it (Mukti).

Traceable from the early days of Vedas, the allegorical tendency has developed into major allegorical presentations in the form of dramas. Their value lies chiefly in making philosophy easily understandable. It can also be otherwise said that allegorical dramas are philosophy made easy.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Ed. by V. Raghavan and Anantalal Thakur, Mithila Institute Series Ancient text No.7, Darbhanga, 1964.

[2]:

Ed. with the com. of Govindāmṛta, ed. by Sambasiva Sastri, Trivandrum, 1936 (TSS.122)

[3]:

Adyar Library Series 65, 1948.

[4]:

Gaekwad Oriental Series 9.

[5]:

Usha Aggarwal, Philosophical Approach to Sanskrit Drama, pp. 104-65.

[6]:

Usha Aggarwal, Philosophical Approach to Sanskrit Drama, pp. 59-103.

[7]:

Kāvyamālā, 59.

[8]:

Saraswati Mahal Library, Tanjore, 1979.

[9]:

Sri Vani Vilas Press, Srirangam, 1941.

[10]:

Ed. with com. Nandinī by M. Duraiswami Aiyangar, The Adyar Library, 1947.

[11]:

Ed. with Hindi com. Prakāśa by Acharya Ramachandra Misra, Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series 270, Varanasi, 1967.

[12]:

Ed. Gugali Rāmacārya, Satyadhyāna Vidyapitha Vidyā Karyālaya, 1960.

[13]:

Gaekwad Oriental Series, 151, 1966.

[14]:

No date is given by V. Raghavan; Pub. by the Asiatic Society Bengal, Calcutta, 1901.

[15]:

Pub. by the author, Madras, 1968.