Gati in Theory and Practice

by Dr. Sujatha Mohan | 2015 | 88,445 words

This page relates ‘Sanskrit dramas and their performance’ of the study on the Theory and Practice of Gati (“gait”) which refers to the “movement of a character on the stage”, commonly employed (as a Sanskrit technical term) in ancient Indian Theatrics and the Dramatic arts, also known as Natya-shastra. This thesis explores the history and evolution of Gati and also investigates how the various Gatis are employed in regional performance traditions.

Sanskrit dramas and their performance

Sanskrit drama is considered as one of the ancient and existing theatre form in India. Evidences for music, dance, mime and dialogues are found in the Vedas, purāṇas, samhitas, and many other works. However, the structure and technique of the drama compiled by Bharata happens to be the foremost among the works on nāṭya. It is a śāstra, which codifies the already extant art during that period. Dance and music forms are an integral part of Sanskrit drama. They prevailed as an entertainment mainly in the Hindu community. These dramas are referred to as nāṭya, dṛśyakāvya, rūpaka, uparūpaka, prekṣā, abhinaya, prabandha, prayoga, and so on. Nāṭya is the form, which is to be visualized and practiced.

Abhinava says:

prayogaḥ pariṣadi prakaṭīkaraṇam—

“A play is to be presented before a group of audience which makes them enjoy and relish the rasa.”

The Nāṭyaśāstra gives essential details regarding the performance of the rūpakas, the major types of dramas, which were of action, acting and speech and thus invoking rasa in the audience. Later came uparūpakas which were mainly dance and music oriented. These dramas came under the subdivision of popular plays, which attracted large number of audience.[1]

Abhinaya, communication, is the root cause to make the audience understand the dramas through the dialogues, verses, hand gestures, facial expressions, body movements, gaits, costumes, internal feelings, mental concentration, and the like, which finally gave rise to rasa, the aesthetic enjoyment.

Bharata had created two Sanskrit plays called Amṛtamanthana and Tripuradaha during Indradvaja ceremony, which depicted the god’s victory over the demons. These two were of Samavakāra and Ḍima variety of dramas. There are references in the Nāṭyaśāstra that these plays were performed in the presence of Lord Śiva at Kailāsa.[2]

The foremost and famous dramatists during the ancient period were Bhāsa, Kālidāsa, Śūdraka and so on. Themes of plays were historical, political, social, metaphysical, and allegorical. The drama, which was enacted on stage, had music, dialogues, dance, action, gait, props and many other things. Actors, well versed in music and dance, formed troupes and travelled widely to perform these dramas. These plays were the main entertainment for the people.

Subandhu’s Vāsavadattā-nāṭyadhārā is said to have had act within acts.[3] Bhāsa was one among the famous earlier dramatists to whom thirteen plays had been assigned. Scholars debate on the date of Bhāsa and the authorship of these dramas. Many of the stories are taken from the Mahābhārata and few from Rāmāyana. The heroes of his play were the Gods like Rāmā and kings like Bhīmā, Udayaṇa and even Ghaṭotkacha and so on. He also wrote few one act plays called Bhāna. The plays of Bhāsa were famous themes in Kūḍiāṭṭam, the art form of Kerala.

Kālidāsa has written three famous dramas out of which one is nāṭaka, another considered as nāṭika by some scholars and one is troṭaka. Śūdraka wrote mṛcchakaṭikā in which a courtesan was the heroine. Viśākadatta’s Mudrārākṣasa was based on a political theme. Mattavilāsa prahasana was written by Mahendravarma. Sriharṣa, a famous king, wrote two nāṭikas and one prakaraṇikā. Shaktibhadra’s Āścaryacūḍāmaṇī, based on Ramāyana, was enacted in Kerala stage, Bhaṭṭa Nārayana’s Veṇīsaṃhāra and Mahāvīracarita, Mālati Mādhava, and Uttararāma carita written by Bhavabhuti, Murari’s Anargharāghava were some of the famous plays. After the 10th century, we could see the performance of uparūpakas, which were musical plays. Rajasekhara’s Karpūramañjarī was music and dance based play variety called saṭṭaka written in Prākṛt. Vatsarāja a dramatist of 12th century is said to have written dramas in all ten varieties based on Bharata’s definitions but they are not available now.[4]

Sanskrit dramas had popular stories that attracted an audience. An ordinary person could understand the stories of the Gods and Kings and relate them with their lives. The language was eloquent, beautiful and those who did not know the language were able to understand the story as they were enacted by the way of body actions and facial expressions, along with the costumes pertaining to the characters.

Rūpakas and uparūpakas were more movement oriented. The aspects of drama and dance were intertwined. In drama, the actor swims, ride on chariots, and flies across space, represent animals and birds, trees, rivers, and even non-living beings, all through their mimetic actions. The sceneries, gardens, sunrise, sunset, storms, earthquakes and so on, were explained through long descriptions in the form of prose or poetry. Rarely there were sets made by the artists, based on the explanations given in the āhārya chapter of the Nāṭyaśāstra. Those objects, which cannot be represented on the stage, by the means of materials, were shown through actions and movements. Therefore, it was more of an imagination rather than actual representation of objects. Darkness was depicted by the moving the hands back and forth in normal lights but not by putting out stage lights. The sunrise was shown by beautiful explanations and not by the lighting of the stage. Gestures and movements are often performed, which makes us to visualise rivers, the sun, the moon, mountains, birds and animals that are not brought on to the stage. The verses are sung at times, and the gaits and movements are supported by instrumentation. Thus, the mode of gestures and movements prescribed for different limbs of the body and the musical orchestra binds the performer.

The aspects dealt with by Bharata are mostly observed by playwrights like Kālidāsa, and in the same way, the Nāṭyaśāstra happens to be one of the main sources for reconstructing the Sanskrit dramas. However, stage directions are given by them and the commentators also follow the same, there are many instances where the meaning of the dialogues and verses are also to be enacted by hand gestures and body movements like description of persons, nature and seasons. Therefore, expression through the body, aṅgas, upāṅgas, sthānas, cāris, abhinaya hastas, nṛtta hastas, karaṇas, maṇḍalas and gatis plays an important role. The characters perform the movements connected to the lyrics, music and rhythm. These acting techniques are the highlights of the productions. Based on the scenes of the drama, which gives importance to āṅgika aspects, are to be understood. Though some elements are not found in the commentaries, there are references in the Nāṭyaśāstra about the technical terms on nāṭya and the method of its performance. We can also see some sculptural evidences, which resemble the gait and dance elements in the Nāṭyaśāstra. With these references, these scenes can be enacted efficiently.

In later times, these Sanskrit dramas were adapted in different regional languages. They were performed in South India during Chola period in the name of āryakkūthu.[5] Kūḍiāṭṭa is said to be one of the living tradition of Sanskrit dramas, as it still retains the Sanskrit language along with Malayalam dialects. Other dance and dance-drama forms such as manipuri, mohiniāṭṭam, bhāgavatamela, kūchipuḍi, kathakali, bharatanāṭya, rāslīlā, āṃkianāṭ, and so on, also have taken plots from itihāsas and purāṇas. Though the language is the local dialect in these dramas, the aṅga abhinaya is mainly based on the techniques seen in the Nāṭyaśāstra. Many classical and folk forms of theatre such as kathakali, kūḍiāṭṭam, bhāgavatamela, yakṣagāna and terukkūthu were also danced. Therefore, dance and drama were inseparable. A dancer had to know acting and an actor had to know dancing. ‘Naṭa’ was a common term for both of them.

In general, there are many references to know that the dramas were danced. In Harivaṃśa[6] there is a reference ‘Nāṭakamnanṛtuḥ’ -‘They danced a play”. In Kumārasambhava there is a reference of Śiva and Pārvati witnessing a dramatic performance which was presented by the Apsaras.[7] In Karpūramañjari, Rājaśekharā says ‘saṭṭakam ṇaccidavva’, a Saṭṭaka is to be danced.

Other than this, Abhinavagupta has mentioned in the commentary of fourth chapter that, the nṛttakaraṇas can be performed for gait of various characters while moving around on the stage.[8] Śārṅgadeva of Saṅgītaratnākara also gives details about the various gaits in the rasas and bhāvas for which karaṇas can be used.[9] So, we should understand that dance was an important element in the performance of Sanskrit dramas.

Kuṭṭanīmaṭa of Damodaragupta describes the enactment of the first act of Ratnāvali in detail.[10] The author refers to the practice of theatrical performance. Prekṣaṇaka, nāṭyapraja and nāṭyaprayoga are some of the words used in connection with the performance of nāṭya. Terms like dhruvas, bhāva and abhinaya are all mentioned. Thus, dance and drama were closely connected with each other.

There are explanations in Naṭāṅkuśa how the dramas were performed. Mayūra of 7th century beautifully compares the sunrise to the opening of the play; “On the mountain platform the Sun’s charioteer like a Sūtradhāra, his beauty being revealed when the night curtain has been removed, offers the puṣpañjali of stars announcing the mahānāṭaka of the sun’s course around the world.”[11] This is a charming way of describing the performance of a drama.

Dṛśyakāvyas are the drama varieties, which were mainly communicative, and due to the acting of naṭas it was called nāṭya.

dṛśyakāvyam tu abhinayārthaṃ naṭādhīnatvāt nāṭyanāmnāpi prasiddhiṃ gacchati[12]

According to Bhoja drama is considered as the greatest form of literature.

ato'bhinetṛbhyaḥ kavīneva bahumanyāmahe |
abhinayebhyaśca kāvyameveti ||[13]

Vāmana opines, drama is the best like a picture as it has in it everything that is extraordinary.

sandarbheṣu daśarūpakam śreyaḥ |
taddhi citram citrapaṭavad viśeṣasākalyāt ||[14]

Abhinava says,

Rasāsvāda happens only in prabandhas (dramas).

tacca (rasāsvādotkarṣakārakaṃvibhāvādīnāṃ samaprādhānyaṃ) prabandha eva bhavatī | vastutastu daśarūpakaeva |[15]

He also adds kāvya is daśarūpaka, which is nāṭya.

kāvyaṃ tāvanmukhyato daśarūpātmakameva | kāvyaṃ ca nāṭ yameva ||

Dr. Raghavan explains that the comparison of drama to a picture in this context;

‘Poetry story or any kind of narration has to be dramatic if it is to be powerful and effective in appeal; its characters must live as in drama where living persons personate the characters. This quality of reality which is in drama, resembling a return to the life of the story, is not found in kāvya which is not dṛśya–enacted and seen-but only śravya-read and heard.’

Later Sanskrit plays started slowly declining and it became a form of entertainment to an elite and appreciative audience only. The normal class of people moved on to the popular types of plays during the 16th and 17th centuries. These were all music and dance oriented. Some were purely dance based and some dance dramas.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Nāṭyaśāstra XII.com.p.93

[2]:

Ibid.XIII.79

[3]:

Ibid.XII.com.p.93

[4]:

Ibid.XXX.com.p.167

[5]:

S.T.R. VI.IX.1,4.

[6]:

Ibid. VI.IX.2,3.

[7]:

Bālarāma-bharata 8, 9.

[8]:

Nāṭyaśāstra XII.2,3.

[9]:

Ibid.XII.com.p.93.

[11]:

Nāṭyaśāstra XII.com.p.94.

[12]:

Ibid.XII.20

[13]:

Ibid.XII.26

[14]:

Ibid.XII.com.p.100

[15]:

Ibid.XII.4

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