Gati in Theory and Practice

by Dr. Sujatha Mohan | 2015 | 88,445 words

This page relates ‘Analysis of technical terms: Natya, Nritta, Nritya’ of the study on the Theory and Practice of Gati (“gait”) which refers to the “movement of a character on the stage”, commonly employed (as a Sanskrit technical term) in ancient Indian Theatrics and the Dramatic arts, also known as Natya-shastra. This thesis explores the history and evolution of Gati and also investigates how the various Gatis are employed in regional performance traditions.

Analysis of technical terms: Nāṭya, Nṛtta, Nṛtya

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The technical terms related to nāṭya are explained contrarily in different centuries. Evolution in practice has been an important reason for this. This is supported by the textual sources also. Some of the terms are nāṭya, nṛtta and nṛtya; mārga and deśi; tāṇḍava and lāsya, abhinaya, saṅgītā. The nāṭyaśāstra provides terms such as nāṭya, nṛtta, tāṇḍava, lāsyaṃga, nāṭaka, abhinaya and terms such as nṛtya and saṅgita became popular in post Bharata period. However, some terms had different interpretation in later periods. These interpretations may be due to the popular usages prevalent during that particular period. Generally, whatever is prevailing in their community influences the scholars who write the Śāstras.

Nāṭya is derived from the root ‘naṭ’ meaning ‘to act’. Nāṭya represents the literature and practices of drama. Nāṭya is performed by the actors who are called naṭas. Every actor was required to be a perfect dancer, musician and should be trained in intonation and voice culture. Nāṭya needs a story line and many artistes to take respective roles. It’s a feast to the eyes and ears and on a higher level to the intellect as well. If dance, vocal and instrumental are all harmoniously blended it is known as saṅgīta,^[1] nāṭya or tauryatṛka.

According to Bharata, nāṭya is a comprehensive art that consists of the elements drama, dance and music. Nṛtta is the dance element in nāṭya. It is an ornamental dance, which enhances the beauty of the drama and gives delight to the audience. Nṛtta epitomizes the ideals of grace and beauty in various postures, rhythmic patterns and movements. Its purpose is not to provide the meaning of the song but to supplement the continuous flow of rasa in nāṭya. According to Abhinava nṛtta was instrumental in bringing the mood of the sentence that is the vākyārtha abhinaya, and is of seven varieties.^[2] Nṛtta is defined in many Post-Bharata works as a non-representational dance, which is just a throw of limbs and devoid of abhinaya, bhāva and rasa. Nṛtya is the art of dance in which the idea is depicted through gestures and rhythmic movements. Thus expressing various emotions through dance is nṛtya while a beautifying element is nṛtta. However all the three had the element of gati or movement.

Nāṭya, its origin, definition and features as in Nāṭyaśāstra

The mythological origin of Nāṭya is expounded by Bharata in his Nāṭyaśāstra.

Once in Tretayuga, Mahendra (Indra) and other gods requested Braḥmā to create a pastime entertainment that is visible and audible; as the four vedas were not to be learnt by the out castes.

krīḍanīyakamicchāmo dṛśyaṃ śravyaṃ ca yad bhavet |

Therefore, Braḥmā contemplated on the Vedas and promulgated the fifth Veda called Nāṭyaveda which exemplifies righteousness, brings prosperity, causes fame, contains instructions and comprehends activities forming a guide to the future generations as well.

The recitative aspect (text) was taken from the Ṛgveda, the music from Sāmaveda, gestural representation from Yajurveda, and the sentiments from Atharvaveda.

jagrāha pāṭhyamṛgvedāt sāmabhyo gītameva ca |
yajurvedādabhinayān rasānātharvaṇādapi ||

This will entertain and educate the people irrespective of caste and creed. Then Braḥmā commanded the Gods to learn the Nāṭyaveda, but they accepted their inability and so he taught this art to Bharata. Then Bharata taught nāṭya and its mode of presentation to his hundred sons. He gave appropriate roles suited to them and started practising the nāṭya. The dramatic performance was of the three vṛttis (styles) namely bhāratī, sāttvatī and ārabhaṭī.

When Braḥmā asked Bharata to add kaiśikī style also, he replied that he had seen Nīlakaṇṭa (Śiva) dancing the beautiful aṅgahāras which is full of beauty, charm and of śṛṃgāra rasa which is impossible for men to perform.

nṛttaṅgahārasampannā rasabhāvakriyātmikā |
dṛṣṭā mayā bhagavato nīlakaṇṭhasya nṛtyataḥ ||

Immediately, Braḥmā created Apsaras and they were handed over to Bharata. Braḥmā engaged sage Svāti along with his disciples to handle the musical instruments. Nārada and the other Gāndharvas were entrusted with music. All were trained accordingly and the dramatic production was performed in the festival of flag staff (Jarjara) commemorating the victory of Mahendra. First, they performed the Nāndī and the next was the episode of Devas winning over Asuras.

Virūpākṣa and other Asuras who were agitated on seeing this started creating troubles by arresting the speech and the action of actors. After seeing the Sūtradhāra surrounded by vignas (troubles), Indra rose up angrily, uprooted the flagstaff and smashed the Asuras and the vignas occupying the stage. Once all the Dānavas were destroyed, the gods bowed Indra and told that since the flagstaff had destroyed all the vignas, it may be known as jarjara.

Definition of nāṭya

Bharata says,

“The nature of the world having pleasure as well as pain which is represented through gesticulations of the body is called Nāṭya.”

yo'yaṃ svabhāvo lokasya sukha duḥkha samanvitaḥ |
so'ṅgādyabhinayopeto nāṭyamityabhidhīyate ||^[3]

Nāṭya is the representations of the reactions of all the three worlds.

trailokyāsya sarvasya nāṭyaṃ bhāvānukīrtanam^[4]

Nāṭya portrays the different aspects, emotions and situations met with in the world.

lokavṛttanukaraṇaṃ nāṭyam |^[5]

Abhinava summarises nāṭya as:

tatra nāṭyaṃ nāma laukikapadārthātiriktaṃtadanukāraprativimbālekhya sādṛśyāropādyavasāyotprekṣā svapnendrajālādivilakṣaṇaṃ tadgrāhakasya samyagjñānabhrāntisaṃśayānavadhāraṇānadyavasāya vijñānabhinnavṛttantāsvādana rūpasamvedanasamvedyamvastu rasasvabhāvamiti vakṣyāmaḥ ||^[6]

Characteristic features of nāṭya

Nāṭya is the art form that will promote virtue, bring fame and longevity, provide benefit, increase the intelligence and contain advice to the world. All the aspects of science and arts are there in nāṭya. It should be educative and entertaining. The stories of Devas, Asuras, Kings, noble men, etc. and the nature of the world having pleasure and pain is depicted in nāṭya and presented as pastime for the world.

It has almost everything in it.

kvacid dharmaḥ kvacitkrīḍā kvacidarthaḥ kvacicchamaḥ |
kvacid hāsyaṃ kvacid yuddhaṃ kvacit kāmaḥ kvacid vadhaḥ ||^[7]

Abhinava says nāṭya is the Dharma of a Naṭa.^[8]

Bharata equates the raṅgadevata pūjana of nāṭya with a yajña.^[9] He also adds that nāṭya acts as a sādhana for leading us to mokṣa. Thus, nāṭya was more a dance drama, due to culmination of the elements of music, dance, dialogues and mime, which represents the pleasure, and the pain of the people. Whatever good or evil happens in society is reflected through the actor on stage and when people see their own feelings represented on the stage the rasa realization arises. Art mirrors reality -This is defined in the Nāṭyaśāstra.

Thus, nāṭya, which was originated by Braḥmā, was taught to his sons by Bharata, which was practiced in heaven and later introduced on to the earth through his disciples. This enhances the intelligence of human beings. The one who preserves and propogates music and drama in the right spirit obtain the meritorious position as that of Braḥmaṛṣis.

This nāṭya is the best way to please and propitiate the Gods.

sa īśvaragaṇeśānāṃ labhate sadgatiṃ parām |
evaṃ nāṭyaprayoge bahuvidhivihitaṃ karmaśāstraṃ praṇītaṃ ||^[10]

The origin of nāṭya is also described in many literary works written on dramatics such as Abhinayadarpaṇa, Saṅgītaratnākara and many more. However, the mythological story has adopted some changes in these works, which were written in different centuries. Kālidāsa mentions in Vikramorvaśīya that the nāṭya was practiced by Ūrvaśī. Other famous works like Kuṭṭanīmaṭa, Naṭāṅkuśa, etc. have also mentioned about the divine origin. From this, it is understood that there is a divine antiquity to this art form.

Nṛtta, its Origin, definition and purpose as in Nāṭyasastra.

Bharata presented the play called Amrutamanthana of samavakāra variety and another play called Tripuradāha of Ḍima variety in the august presence of Lord Śiva. Lord appreciated the performance and was reminded of his dance comprising of karaṇas and aṅgahāras, which he used to perform in the evenings. Then Śiva ordered taṇḍu to teach the aṅgahāras to Bharata. Thus nṛtta, which originated from Lord Śiva, became a subsidiary of nāṭya. It also got the name tāṇḍava.

After destroying the sacrifice of Dakṣa in the twilight, Maheśvara performed the dance with different aṅgahāras with laya and tāla. On seeing the Lord dancing the recakas and aṅgahāras and Pārvatī dancing with delicate movements the attendants sounded various musical instruments. Seeing the combination of karaṇas, aṅgahāras and recakas, in the dance of Śiva and Pārvatī, gaṇas like Nandikeśvara named them as piṇḍībandhas. After evolving the aṅgahāras, recakas and piṇḍībandhas, Maheśvara taught them to Taṇḍu, who then embellished the dance with music and instrumental accomplishments. Hence, the dance is called tāṇḍava. Mostly tāṇḍava dance is used to praise the Gods and its delicate version (sukumāra prayoga) is used in the sentiment of love. Abhinava says nṛtta that consists of aṃgahāra is anādi as it was remembered by Śiva.

He also adds aṅgahāra (combination of karaṇas) is that which gives the prayogaphala of nṛtta.

smṛtamityanāditvamasya darśayati |
aṅgahāra eva nṛttaṃ prayogaphalaṃ prasūte |^[11]

Definition of nṛtta

Bharata defines,

“Nṛtta doesn’t depend upon any specific meaning but it imparts beauty and splendor”.

atrocyate na khalvarthaṃ kañcinnṛttamapekṣate |
kiṃ tu śobhāṃ prajanayediti nṛttaṃ pravartitam ||^[12]

Generally everyone in the world spontaneously love dance and it is also auspicious.

Purpose of nṛtta

Dance can be employed as an amusement in occasions like marriage, birth of child, reception of a bridegroom and other events of joy and prosperity. Tāṇḍava (nṛtta) is to be performed before the songs and thus nṛtta became ancilliaries of songs in nāṭya, the dramatic performances. Dance should be employed on the occasion of the success of the hero and to heighten the pleasure of the couple in amorous mood, etc. On such occasion when the lover is near and at the onset of agreeable seasons dance may be initiated.

Bharata says,

“One who performs the dance promulgated by Maheśvara goes to the world of Śiva after purifying himself by shedding all his sins.”^[13]

Observations on nṛtta

It should be understood that nṛtta doesn’t necessarily convey any meaning of the words of the songs, that is padārtha.

Abhinava says sometimes when nṛtta is used for extension of songs it may convey any mood or vākyārtha through aṅgahāras and piṇḍībandhas.

tatra saṃyoga vardhamānādikrameṇa tathā vākyārthābhinaye yathāyogaṃ yojyamānāṅgahārapiṇḍībandhakrameṇa yenābhinetuṃ śakṣyasi ||^[14]

The karaṇa conveys an idea only when it is performed along with the hasta abhinaya or mukhaja abhinaya. If we take a karaṇa called hariṇapluta, it can be performed in the manner where it is only a jump similar to that of a deer, may be along with eye movements, which is nṛtta. However, if you have to show a deer jumping in fear it should be enacted along with appropriate dṛṣṭi and sāttvika bhāva and then only it becomes abhinaya. Similarly, according to Bharata kaiśikīvṛtti, which encompasses nṛttakaraṇas and aṅgahāras, enhances the rasotpatti (rasabhāva kriyātmikā). Thus nṛtta can be performed without changing the mood in between the abhinaya presentation i.e. sukumāra prayoga can be used to enhance sṛṅgāra, hāsya, karuṇā and bībhatsa and uddhata prayoga can be done to enhance the raudra, vīra, bhayānakha and adbhuta rasas.^[15]

Nāṭya and Nṛtta—Its relationship as in Abhinavabhārati

According to Abhinavagupta nṛtta is not different from nāṭya.

He says there is no difference in aṅgavikṣepa, nṛtta and gīta which are the aspects seen in both.

aṅgavikṣepanṛttagītavattvenāvailakṣaṇyāt |^[16]

The portion of song taken for doing the padārtha and vakyārtha abhinaya in nāṭya, is not different from that of nṛtta.

A question raised by vārtikakāra goes thus: Abhinaya goes with the direct meaning of the song (in nāṭya) and the meaning of the song is understood through gātra vikṣepa (in nṛtta), then what is the difference between nṛtta and nāṭya?

vācyānugate'bhinaye pratipādye'rthe ca gātravikṣepaiḥ |
ubhayorapi hi samāne kobhedo nṛttanāṭyagataḥ ||^[17]

Abhinava views that it is wrong to say that nṛtta is not nāṭya due to lack of direct perception.

Because, we are able to understand clearly that the girl who praises her lover dances, khaṇḍitā dances, kalahāntaritā dances, etc.

sākṣādbudhyabhāvānna nāṭyaṃ tadasat | iyaṃ priyatamaguṇakīrtanaparā nṛtyati | khaṇḍitā nṛtyati | kalahāntaritā nṛtyati -iti buddheḥ sambhavāt |^[18]

He adds that because it is sung and performed we cannot say that it (nṛtta) is different from nāṭya. He refers to a verse in the chapter of sāmānya abhinaya which mentions ‘nāṭyāyita’ as the delineation of feelings in the dhruvā songs.^[19]

Finally he concludes that both have the same lakṣaṇa and so nṛtta is not different from nāṭya.

tasmānnṛttaṃ nāṭyādabhinnaṃ tallakṣaṇopetatvāt |^[20]

Rāgakāvya is nāṭya because it has abhinaya. He says that which is devoid of abhinaya but has only valana, āvartana, bhrūkṣepa, etc. is to be known as nṛtta.

There the purpose of abhinaya is to take forward the said meaning.

tatrābhinayānāmupayoga uktārthābhimukhyaprāptiḥ |^[21]

Nṛtta doesn’t have any purpose as to accomplish the meaning of the word. Along with gīta and vādya its purpose is to give enjoyment (uparañjaka).

Then what is the purpose of gīta?

nṛttasya tūktarūpasya na kiñcitprayojanam | uparañjakatayā gītavādyādivadupayoga iti cet -gītasya tāvat-|

Abhinava quotes Bharata who says that what is not expressed by poetry could be enhanced by music.

yattu kāvyena noktam syāttadgītena prasādhayet ||
iti ‘yāni vākyaistu na brūyāt’ iti ‘na taireva tu vākyārthaiḥ’^[22]

‘It is not only the words that expresses the meaning’.

Going by this logic, nṛtta also has role to play in characterization, mental feeling, story, plot, etc. In the same way vākyārtha can be expressed and can be the enhanced with vādya along with gīta and tāla. If we say nṛtta is not used in yuddha, niyuddha or gati parikrama, he says that as cārīs and maṇḍalas these yuddha etc. can be performed in lokadharmi and with the nṛtta hastas like caturaśra etc. it can be performed as nāṭyadharmi. Thus, nṛtta performed in nāṭyadharmi enhances the nāṭya.^[23]

Pūrvapakṣa refers to the verse “mahāgīteṣu” he says if the meaning can be well portrayed by nṛtta through abhinaya, then why nṛtta is not nāṭya.

yadyayaṃ nṛttabhimato'bhinayo vihitastatkasmādabhinayatve tulye nṛttametanna nāṭyam |^[24]

When abhinaya is done for gītakārtha does nṛtta anyother than hasta and cārī to depict abhinaya?

Abhinava says main aim of nṛtta is not in giving out the padārtha of song through abhinaya and it does not come under the aṅga of the song. Nṛtta is a different element of gīta. As svaras occur in between the songs, but they do not give the bhāva of the song, sameway nṛtta is performed in gīta.

Abhinava says that even if we say that nṛtta, which comprises of recaka and aṅgahāra does not express any meaning. Like the mantras which gives success, nṛtta, also grants success.^[25] The compilation of the pūrvapakṣa is stated, as ‘though the three elements nṛtta, tāla and gīta come under nāṭya it is difficult to tell that these are nāṭya itself.’^[26]

Definitions of Nṛtya:

Nṛtya is also derived from the root “nṛt” (Nṛti+ kyp)–to dance. Scholars say that the term nṛtya is seen in Amarakośa for the first time. This is dated around 4^th century C.E.

Mārkandeya purāṇa and Vāyu purāṇa also has the term nṛtya^[27]

mayāpīdaṃ smṛtaṃ nṛttaṃ (nṛtyaṃ) sandhyākāleṣu nṛtyatā |^[28]

These lines have two readings nṛtta and nṛtya, which is still debated. Scholars such as K.M. Varma opine that the word nṛtya should be a later interpolation.^[29]

The author of Daśarūpaka and Saṅgītaratnākara points out that nṛtya also belongs to the mārga variety of dance. This could be because nṛtya must have been evolved immediately after Bharata’s period. However, Abhinavagupta does not include the word nṛtya as he follows only Bharata. He says there are varieties of nṛtta, which is also imitative and representative.

Nṛtya is dance and it is different from nāṭya, drama. The performer, nartaka, is not a hero, but a dancer. It is story telling, not the story itself enacted by the character taking a role. It is considered as a part in a drama.

Nāṭya, Nṛtta, Nṛtya definition in Post-Bharata works.

The concept of nāṭya as a complete dramatic art form comprising of nṛtya and nṛtta transformed during Post-Bharata period but after the decline of Sanskrit drama, they all were marked as individual dance varieties.

The term nartana was introduced by many authors as the art of dancing and its varieties being nāṭya (dramatized dancing), nṛtya (dance with facial expressions) and nṛtta (pure beautifying dance) became popularized. The terms saṅgīta, nāṭya and tauryatṛka became synonymns.

The Sanskrit lexicon Amarakośa written by Amarasiṃha refers to dance by these terms.

tāṇḍavaṃ naṭanaṃ nāṭyaṃ lāsyaṃ nṛtyaṃ ca nartane |^[30]

The combination of the triple symphony of nṛtya, gīta and vādya is nāṭya.

tauryatrikaṃ nṛtyagītavādyaṃ nāṭyamidaṃ trayaṃ |^[31]

Nāṭya, nṛtya and nṛtta are the three classifications done by Sārṅgadeva.

He says,

‘This art of dancing is reputed to be threefold, nāṭya, nṛtya and nṛtta.’—

nāṭyaṃ nṛtyaṃ tathā nṛttaṃ tredhā taditi kīrtitam ||^[32]

Siṃhabhūpāla says in his commentary Sudhākara: Nartana is of three types, namely nāṭya, nṛtta and nṛtya–

nartanaṃ triprakāraṃ nāṭyaṃ nṛttaṃ nṛtyamiti |^[33]

Nandikesvara says,

According to Bharata the dance which has four aspects is of three kinds nāṭya, nṛtta and nṛtya.

etaccaturvidhopetaṃ naṭanaṃ trividhaṃ smṛtaṃ nāṭyaṃ nṛttaṃ nṛtyamiti munibhirbharatādibhiḥ ||^[34]

Definition and features of Nāṭya

-) Nāṭya is the imitating of the situations and is called rūpa as it can be seen.

avasthanukṛtirnāṭyaṃ rūpaṃ dṛśyatayocyate |^[35]

-) Dhanika expands this as the imitation of the states of heroes like dhīrodhdātta who are connected with the kāvyas with the four abhinayas, which is nāṭya.

kāvyopanibaddha dhīroddhāttanukāraścaturvidhābhinayena tādātmyāpattirnāṭyam ||^[36]

-) Nāṭya comprises of the depiction of a holistic meaning.

nāṭyaṃ-vākyārtha abhinayātmakaṃ |^[37]

The activity of naṭa is called nāṭya–

naṭakarmaiva nāṭyaṃ syāditi nāṭyavidāṃ matam |^[38]

-) Nāṭya is the imitation of situations—

avasthanukṛtirnāṭyamiti sāmānyalakṣaṇam ||^[39]

-) Rasa (sentiment) is an important element in nāṭya. Rasa, which manifests through its implication, consists of the four types of abhinaya.

nāṭyaśabdo rase mukhyo rasābhivyaktikāraṇam |
caturdhābhinayopetaṃ lakṣaṇāvṛttito budhaiḥ ||^[40]

-) Nāṭya is the anukaraṇa of the nature of the world, which is a combination of joy and sorrow.

lokasya ca svabhāvo yaḥ sukhaduḥkhavimiśritaḥ |
nāṭyaṃ tasyānukaraṇaṃ caturthābhinayānvitam ||^[41]

-) Nāṭya, which is nāṭaka, is an adorable art and it has some traditional story for its theme.

nāṭyaṃ tannāṭakaṃ caiva pūjyaṃ pūrvakathāyutam |^[42]

Nāṭya is the art of naṭas who are either actors or dancers. The major form of drama is known as rūpaka, which is based on nāṭya. Pāṭhya is nāṭya or rūpaka, which has many dialogues. Rūpaka places a greater emphasis on sāttvika and other abhinayas, which are rasātmaka.

Dhanika says naṭa means ‘to move gently’. Thus, this word conveys the sense of mostly gentleness. Nāṭya is the imitation of the states of heroes such as dhirodātta, who are connected with the context of the kāvyas with the four kinds of abhinayas and getting oneness with the state it imitates. Nāṭya is called rūpa because it can be seen on the stage like the colours blue and red. Because the acting of the actors is attributed to the states of heroes the nāṭya it is called rūpaka, as in the sense of the word mukhacandra, the brightness of the moon, is attributed to the face. The senses conveyed by these three words i.e. nāṭya, rūpa and rūpaka, are same says Dhanika, the commentator of Daśarūpaka.^[43]

Definition and features of nṛtta

-) Nṛtta is derived from the root “nrt”. (Nrti + kta)

-) Nṛtta is based on rhythm and tempo. nṛttaṃ tāla layāśrayam |^[44]

-) Nṛtta is the receptacle of tāla, which means striking the drum in a particular length of time, and the laya, the time in music, which enriches the music.^[45]

-) The mere dancing which does not require the acting after any particular state of hero and which is according to these mātras of measures of music is nṛtta.

tanmātrāpekṣo'ṅgavikṣepo abhinayaśūnyo nṛttamiti ||^[46]

-) Nṛtta is defined by the experts, in dance, as that based on āṅgika, which consists of only, body movements and is devoid of all abhinayas.

gātravikṣepamātraṃ tu sarvābhinaya varjitam |
āṅgikoktaprakāreṇa nṛttaṃ nṛttavido viduḥ ||^[47]

-) Nṛtta is that which does not express the bhāva by means of abhinaya.

bhāvābhinayahīnantu nṛttamityabhidhīyate ||^[48]

-) Nṛtta is that which is performed with karaṇas and aṅgahāras. karaṇairaṅgahāraiśca nirvṛttaṃ nṛttamucyate |^[49]

-) Nṛtta is devoid of rasa and bhāva. rasa bhāva vihīnaṃ tu nṛttamityabhidhīyate |^[50]

-) Nṛtta is the movement of the body coping with the conditions of the situation, which has tāla, laya and bhāva, and it materialises from words, limbs, costumes and sattva. nṛttaṃ syād gātravikṣepo avasthanukṛtirlakṣaṇaḥ | tālabhāvalayāyatte vāgaṅgāhāryasattvajaḥ ||^[51]

-) Nartana which has tāla and laya is nṛtta.

yattalalayaniṣpannaṃ nartanaṃ nṛttamīritam ||^[52]

Abhinava opines that Bharata has classified nṛtta as seven varieties: 1) Śuddha nṛtta, 2) Gitakādyabhinayonmukha nṛtta 3) Gāna vādya tālānusārī nṛtta, 4) Uddhata nṛtta, 5) Sukumāra nṛtta, 6) Miśroddhata nṛtta 7) Miśrasukumāra nṛtta.

evamidaṃ ca nṛttaṃ saptakṛtiprakārairbhagavata eva prasṛtam | tathāhi-śuddhameva nṛttaṃ recakāṅgahārātmakam | tato gītakādyabhinayonmukham | tato'pi gānakriyāmātrānusāri vādyatālānusāri ca |.......... tato'pyuddhatasukumāramiśrātmakabhedacatuṣṭayabhinnakāvyārthānusāritayā caturvidham |^[53]

He says the first three varieties are based on the movements of the aṅga only.

(bāhu) preṅkhaṇoraḥkampapārśvanamanonnamanacaraṇasaraṇasphuritakampitabhrūtārāparispandakaṭicchedāṅgavalanamātrarūpam |^[54]

The next four are to be used in dance in praise of Gods and in pūrvaraṅga.

Thus it can be understood that here also Abhinava does not stress that nṛtta brings out the abhinaya. The first four are just movements of the limbs and the other three are to be the karaṇas, aṅgahāras, recakas and pindibandhas, which are of sukumāra and uddhata in nature. Nṛtta can be understood in the context of drama and as an independent art of dance connected with music. This was both communicative and just for enhancing the beauty and bringing in joyous mood.^[55]

Definition and features of nṛtya

-) Nṛtya is another component (different from nāṭya) which is based on bhāva says Dhanañjaya.

anyadbhāvāśrayaṃ nṛtyam |^[56]

-) Nṛtya is called mārga; each word is represented through abhinaya.

nṛtyaṃ padārtha abhinayātmakaṃ mārga iti prasiddham ||^[57]

-) Nṛtya is that which demonstrates moods exclusively through āṅgika abhinaya, and is well known by the term mārga.

āṅgikābhinayaireva bhāvāneva vyanaktiyat |
tannṛtyaṃ mārgaśabdena prasiddhaṃ nṛtyavedinām ||^[58]

-) Nartana is that which is endowed with bhāva, and it is called nṛtya.

bhāvāśrayaṃ nartanaṃ hi nṛtyamityabhidhīyate ||^[59]

-) Nṛtya is the imitative dance that which suggests the rasa and bhāva.

rasabhāva vyañjanādiyuktaṃnṛtyamitīryate ||^[60]

-) Nṛtya is a different component from nṛtta. Though the motion of the limbs are common in both nṛtya is the imitation of actions of the words and their meaning and nṛtta is the moving about of limbs.

yathā ca gātravikṣepārthatve samāne'pyanukārātmakatvena nṛttadanyannṛtyam ||^[61]

-) Nṛtya is that which is pleasing to the God and which has rhythm and sentiment and which has graceful movements of the limbs.

devarucyā pratīto yastālamānarasāśrayaḥ |
savilāso'ṅgavikṣepo nṛtyamityucyate budhaiḥ ||^[62]

Dhanika opines nāṭya is the receptacle of bhāva, which is different from nṛtya, because the former is the receptacle of rasa, while the latter is the receptacle of bhāva.

rasāśrayānnāṭyād bhāvāśrayam nṛtyaṃ anyadeva |
tatra bhāvāśrayamiti viṣayabhedāt ||^[63]

Nāṭaka is endowed with rasa because the acting is based on the meaning of the sentences (vākyārtha) got from the vibhāva, anubhāva and so on, aroused from the meaning of the word (padārtha).

rasasya ca padārtībhūta vibhāvādikasaṃsargāttmakavākyārthahetukatvā vākyārthābhinayātmakatvam ||^[64]

Observations and findings

The distinction that nṛtya is bhāvaśraya (endowed with bhāva) and nāṭya is rasāśraya (endowed with rasa) is debated by scholars because Bharata himself says that there is no bhāva without rasa and vice versa. This is also felt by the later writers like Kumbharāṇa and Vipradāsa. They say that rasa is manifested by nṛtya while bhāva supplements it. In both the cases, the name is nṛtya. In order to distinguish them, they name the former variety as nāṭya-nṛtya and the latter as mārga-nṛtya.^[65]

Dhanañjaya says nṛtya and nṛtta enrich the acting in the dramas.

The former refines the subordinate acting and the latter adds graced to the acting.

nṛtyasya kvacidavāntarapadārthābhinayena nṛttasya ca śobhā hetutvena nāṭakādāvupayoga iti ||^[66]

The art that is created and popularized by masters, like Bharata, is called mārga and an art that is practiced by different people of various regions, in keeping with their taste, is called deśi. Many authors like Dhanañjaya, Śārṅgadeva and Jāyasenāpati have mentioned in their works that what Bharatamuni has given in his Nāṭyaśāstra can be taken as mārga, and that which has been included by his successors from their own regional point of view as deśi. For example, Saṅgīta Ratnākara mentions 108 karaṇas given in the Nāṭyaśāstra as mārga karaṇas and thirty-six more karaṇas added by the author as deśi karaṇas. When we look at this subject from this angle, that which was expounded by Bharata, must be called mārga and the other types of prevailing dances (nṛtta) are logically to be called deśi.

Nṛtta is defined as deśi (regional) by Dhanañjaya. This means that nṛtta is not accepted as mārga. May be the nṛtta refers to the dance prevalent in their region during his period, so he says that nṛtta is deśi. As he belongs to the 10^th century and during his period, many forms of deśi dance forms had evolved. He says nṛtya as mārga. Therefore, we can conclude that nṛtya has been prevalent during his time as a mimetic dance form based on aspects of Nāṭyaśāstra along with nṛtta the abstract form of their region.

Nṛtta is defined as non-expressive dance (Abhinaya varjita) by Śārṅgadeva. Commentator Sudhākara opines just movement of limbs without expression is nṛtta.

According to Kallinātha, this nṛtta is different from the nāṭyanṛtta. He says,

āṅgikābhinaye aṅgapratyaṅgopāṅgānāṃ yaḥ prakāra uktaḥ, tena prakāreṇa gātravikṣepamātraṃ tu nṛttavido nṛttaṃ viduḥ | tu śabdo nṛttasya nāṭyanṛttabhyāṃ vailakṣaṇyadyotanāya ||^[67]

From this, it is understood that nṛtta performed in nāṭya can be representative. Śārṅgadeva himself has explained the nṛtta karaṇas of the Nāṭyaśastra and has added the viniyogas or uses as representing the various sthāyi and vyabhicāri bhāvas through nṛtta karaṇas. This could mean that nṛtta is a graceful body movement, which can be used in nṛtya, expressive dance that is bhāvatmaka or nāṭya which is rasātmaka. According to Bharata, nṛtta is to be performed before and after the actual abhinaya or expression of the song. This means that they both are different but can be collectively known as nṛtya.

According to Abhinava the nṛtta karaṇas are used for vākyartha abhinaya, representation of the general idea or mood. For instance, gajakrīḍitaṃ karaṇa is the sporting elephant and hariṇaplutaṃ karaṇa shows the darting deer. If an actor shows a darting deer with mṛgaśīrṣa abhinaya hasta for a word from the song it is padārtha abhinaya. If it is showed with hariṇaplutaṃ karaṇa for the music, which follows or enhances the lyric it is nṛtta or vākyarta abhinaya. The name of these karaṇas suggests how these movements or jumps should be performed. This obviously means that nṛtta can be representative but it does not bring out the word-to-word meaning of the song.^[68]

Nṛtta, though it is presented for vākyartha abhinaya, it enhances the mood. Bharata himself, through the questions asked by the sages, states that nṛtta does not have any connection with the artha of the song but only brings beauty to the performance. This should be taken as śuddha nṛtta, a variety explained by Abhinava.

Abhinava also views that the nṛtta karaṇas are used to portray some of the vyabhicāri bhāvas and rasas. The first karaṇa talapuṣpapuṭaṃ is used in offering flowers (puṣpāñjali) and for the expression of shyness and vartitaṃ karaṇa for anger. Vyabhicāri bhāva like pride or arrogance are portrayed by vikṣiptāṃ karana, intoxication is portrayed by mattalli karaṇa, respect is depicted by upasṛtakaṃ karaṇa and flattery is depicted by sannataṃ karaṇa. These are suggested by angika abhinaya but rasotpatti is attained only through sāttvika abhinaya.

Therefore, it should be understood that nṛtta is of āṅgika and if sattva is added to it then it becomes bhāva rasātmaka. Thus, when the nṛttakaraṇas exhibit the bhāvas they become nṛtyakaraṇas. From this, it is known that nṛtta and nṛtya were inseperable.

According to Bharata, the rasotpatti of nāṭya is attained only by witnessing a performance as a whole. He only considers the main rasas as eight in number as he feels the others bhāvas cannot be the sthāyi and are not in a position to attain the status of rasa. That is why he says nāṭya is rasātmaka and nṛtya is bhāvatmaka. This is the reason why the post Bharata scholars started defining nṛtta as ‘bhāva rasa vihinaṃ’, taking it to be the non-representative dance. Moreover, most of the deśi nṛttas prevailing during their period were abstract dance varieties. Nowadays, nṛtta is considered to be pure decorative rhythmic dance with body movements such as aḍavus of Bharatanāṭya.

Actual nṛtta is pure body movements (gātra vikṣepa) and when it is added with facial expressions and hand gestures it becomes nṛtya. Āṅgika is nṛtta and when sāttvika is added it becomes nṛtya. Therefore, we can say nṛtta is the raw material added with abhinaya, which makes it nṛtya. This variety of non-representational nṛtta is known as śuddha nṛtta. Its purpose is to gladden the onlooker. Yet, there is a representational nṛtta, which makes the audience, understand the theme. Padārtha abhinaya cannot be represented by nṛtta. So, nṛtta cannot be used for expressing the word to word meaning (padārtha abhinaya).

Bharata himself uses the term abhinaya in the place of āṅgika abhinaya at times, as he uses the term nātaka in the place of rūpaka. Nṛtta can be transformed to abhinaya or nṛtya. Some medieval writers describe abhinaya as facial expression. However, according to Bharata, abhinaya means histrionic representation and nṛtta comes under angika abhinaya.

Therefore, the researcher feels that at a particular point of time the meaning of word abhinaya has been narrowed to facial expression and nṛtta as pure dance (śuddha nṛtta) with body and leg movements without any facial expression. The concept of representing a subject through the whole body was forgotten. This was the reason why the definition of abhinaya hīna had been given.

Though, Bharata states that nṛtta cannot give the meaning of the song directly, it should not be taken that all the nṛtta karaṇas are non-representative.

The meaningless sollukaṭṭus and svaras come under vācika abhinaya. They do not mean anything, but they create a mood or feeling. Even at times, silence communicates an emotion or feeling; communication does not always mean that meaning is conversed. Bharata says “poets should employ three kinds of letters in dramatic compositions namely short, long and prolated vowels so as to suggest the sentiments and emotions.^[69] Short vowels should be profusely used in vīra and raudra, long in bībhatsa and karuṇa and also in vīra and raudra to denote pride.^[70] Thus these will enhance the rasa or will not interrupt the flow of rasa in the text.

The seven svaras are to be employed appropriately to the rasas.

tatra saptasvarā nāma | ta ete raseṣūpapādyāḥ...... |^[71]

The kākus (intonations) should relate to the rasas.

evaṃ bhāvarasopetā kākuryojyā prayoktṛbhiḥ |^[72]

Thus when Bharata has said that even the musical notes and kākus produce rasa then why not the śuddha nṛtta? Sameway nṛtta should not interrupt the flow of rasa.

Bharata says in the fourth chapter of his Nāṭyaśāstra that the sages asked him if the art of abhinaya was evolved to convey the meaning of the poetic composition and questioned the purpose of nṛtta. Bharata replies nṛtta, dance, imparts beauty and splendour, and it is auspicious and liked by all. Nāṭya (drama) of those days had all four kinds of abhinayas, āṅgika, vācika, āhārya and sāttvika. That was enough for the ideas to be conveyed, so such a question arised among the sages. Even then, according to Bharata, nṛtta is an element of āṅgika abhinaya.

Though, he says nṛtta does not depend on the meaning, it can be taken as an expansion of the meaning. Nṛtta travels beyond the meaning. It is an attractive way of conveying the mood or theme. He describes the elements of nṛtta i.e. nṛtta karaṇas as units of dance which have specific use in nāṭya. He says karaṇas can be used for depicting the vākyārtha abhinaya, the holistic meaning of the sentence. For example, the abhinaya hasta mṛgaśīrṣa when moved can convey the meaning of a deer jumping, but the existence of the hariṇaplutaṃ karaṇa is questioned. The answer for this is that, the hariṇaplutaṃ karaṇa performed by the whole body is nṛtta (dance) and if it is performed only by an abhinaya hasta and mere walk it is nāṭya (acting).

Therefore, here naturally nṛtta imparts beauty, which is liked by all, and could be understood in holistic manner, thus vākyārtha abhinaya. When we take nṛtta as a beautiful dance movement, it is non-representational, and when it is used to communicate certain ideas, it becomes representational. For instance, the vidyudhbhrāntaṃ karaṇa is a beautiful dance movement. Yet when it is performed to illustrate lightning, it becomes representational. Likewise, alapadma hasta communicates a lotus but when used in nṛtta it does not mean anything. Garuḍapluta karaṇa denotes the flight of an eagle, but it does not mean that it should be used only for depicting an eagle, it can be used with other hastas in nṛtta also, as a beautifying movement.

According to Bharata only eight rasās are considered; bhakti, ananda and so on, are not considered as rasas. If you take śuddha nṛtta, one cannot say that it has no bhāva or cannot produce rasa. The rasa can be produced depending on the mental attitude of the dancer, that is, the utsāha bhāva of the performer that is transmitted into the audience. The vyabhicāri bhāva of harṣa can also be present and thus nṛtta can help in evoking the bhāva. Even in rāga ālāpa moods can be created. As Abhinava says, that the Nāṭyaśāstra was written by Bharata with the sthāyi being utsāha. If so, why cannot the sthāyi of suddha nṛtta also be utsāha?^[73]

However, later aḍavus of Bharatanāṭya came under the division of nṛtta. These are just body movements, which are always non-representational, which brings out the sthāyi of utsāha in the performer and the audience. Aḍavus are used along with hastas and facial expressions in nṛtya.

There are some other definitions and terms mentioned by Bharata, which slightly deviates from his own descriptions. Some scholars opine that the Nāṭyaśāstra was not written by a single author. This may be true here because, some verses which give contrary meaning could have been added later. Some are clarified in Abhinava, then again, some are not.

Kallinātha says in the commentary of Saṅgītaratnākara about nṛtta thus.

nṛttaṃ lakṣayati-karaṇairityadi | nanu lakṣitasyāpi nṛttasya punarlakṣaṇaṃ kathamiti cet, ucyate | pūrvaṃ sarvābhinayaśūnyamāṅgikābhinayaprakāreṇa pravartitaṃgātravikṣepamātraṃ nṛttamityuktam | idānī tvāṅgikābhinayasya āṅgikatvena madhyaṃ prayojyaṃ karaṇāṅgahāranirvṛttaṃ nṛttamuktamiti bhedo draṣṭavyaḥ ||^[74]

If we take nṛtta karaṇa spoken as an element of āṅgika abhinaya is different from nṛtta dance, first is representational and the second is non-representational. Kallinatha’s comentary says nṛtta is different from nāṭyanṛtta.^[75]