Nāṭya is a composite art that can be known with different terms. Terms related to nāṭya are dṛśyakāvya, rūpaka, uparūpaka, saṅgīta, prekṣa, prayoga, nṛtta, nṛtya, nartana, naṭana, lāsya, tauryatṛka and so on. The performers of nāṭya were known as naṭa, bharata, śailūṣa, kuśīlava and so on. The art of dance and drama are interrelated. Scholars opine that the art of dancing was present prior to the art of dramatics as we have reference to the word nṛtta in the Vedas, but the word naṭa was first located in Pāṇini’s work. Even when Braḥma creates the Nāṭyaveda, Śiva says that he was reminded of his nṛtta. However, the art of dance, music and drama are interrelated. The Vedic literature reveals a good knowledge of drama, dance, music and musical instruments. Antiquity of the art of nāṭya is known through references in Sanskrit literature. These were responsible for the development of these art forms. The nāṭyaveda is the knowledge of nāṭya or the holistic theatre and the Nāṭyaśāstra is the record of the science of nāṭya.

1. Vedic period

The Vedas reveal a good knowledge of dance and music. Ṛgveda has more recitations, the Yajurveda has actions made by priests and in the Atharvaveda, a mental state was produced by the priests in order to perform the rituals.^[1]. Vedic sacrifices were essentially mimesis. The concentration of mind that evokes rasa is also connected with Atharvaveda procedures. While enumerating the wide range of professions and pastimes, the Vedic seers refer to dance. Ṛgveda refers to the term ‘nṛt’.^[2].The word ‘nṛtu’ occurs in the sense of a female dancer to whom Goddess Uṣas is compared. Uṣas is described as revealing her beauty like a dancer removing the garments in the form of darkness.^[3]

The Apsaras and Gāndarvas, whose profession was dancing, and singing have found a mention in this work. The Ṛks or verses in the Ṛgveda are all composed in musical accents called Udātta, anudātta and svarita. The eighth book of this Veda, in which songs predominate, is called Pragātā, a word derived from the root ‘gāi’ (to sing). Another reference to music is made where the girls sing to welcome a person.^[4] Instruments such as dundubhi (drum), karkari (flute), vīna, and nādi (reed flute) are mentioned in some instances.^[5]

The Vājasaneyi samhita of the Śukla Yajurveda mentions of the term nṛtta and gīta. It says, a Sūta is employed for dance and a Śailūṣa for music.^[6] In the Atharvaveda there is a mention about dance and the term ‘nṛt’^[7] Sāmaveda comprises of the ṛks, which are sung, with melodic extensions of the vowels called stobhas. Many aspects of musical notes can be seen in this Veda. Sāmaveda with the hymns set to tune clearly shows that the art of music was fully developed in Vedic age.

Other than these, the Vedic index shows a very wide variety of musical instruments in use in Vedic times. Instruments of percussion are represented by the terms such as āḍambara; a kind of drum; bhūmi-dundubhi, an earth drum made by digging a whole in the ground and covering with hide; vanaspati, a wooden drum. The stringed instruments are represented by the kaṇḍa vīṇa, a kind of lute; vīṇa a lute of hundred strings. The solid instruments by aghati, a cymbal used to accompanying dance and the hollow instruments represented by tuṇava, a wooden flute. Thus, many references to the music, dance and drama are seen from the Vedic age.

Among the four upavedas, the Gāndharva Veda is the science of music that embraces a wide sphere of dancing, singing, acting, playing on the instruments and so on. The Gāndharva Veda is the Upaveda of Sāmaveda.

Nāṭyaśāstra refers to music as gāndharva.

gandharvāṇāṃ ca yasmāddhi tasmādgandharvamucyate ||^[8]

Abhinava in his commentary says gāṃ dhārayatīti gāndharvam |

He quotes Viśākila who says:

svarapadatālasamavāye tu gāndharvam |^[9]

Kallinātha in the commentary of Saṅgītaratnākara says,

sāmavedasyopavedo gāndharvavedaḥ |

He also adds,

nāṭyaṃ veda eva gītaprādhānyavivakṣayā gāndharvaveda ucyate |
abhinaya prādhānya vivakṣayā tu nāṭya veda iti cocyate ||^[10]

Gāndharva is referred to in Rāmāyaṇa. The sāman singers were connected with the sacrifice, while the Gāndharvas were professional musicians. The word gāndharva denoted music other than sāman music. Of course, the sāman music must have impetus to the gāndharva music.^[11] The Gāndharvaveda was used in the preliminaries and in the actual performance in the form of dhruvā songs and as an accompaniment to various movements.^[12]

Music is referred to in the saṃhitā works Maitrayāṇi saṃhitā, Taittirīya saṃhitā and Yajussaṃhitā. They saw that women were taught some of the fine arts like dancing and singing.^[13] In the Kauśītaki brāḥmaṇa sacrificial priests are described as performing gestures. It also says saṅgīta forms a part of yajña. Śilpa is described as dance, vocal and instrumental music in Kauśītaki brāḥmaṇa^[14] and Sāṅkhyāyana brāḥmaṇa.^[15]

In the Śatapatha brāḥmaṇa the Apsaras are referred to as dancing and singing at the aśvameda sacrifice.^[16] In the Taittirīya brāḥmaṇa^[17] we get reference to vaṃśa nartinām which Śāyana explains as vaṃśāgra nṛtta jīvanam, one who has livelihood by dancing on the pole end. In the Jaiminīya brāḥmaṇa, we have reference to nṛtta and gīta as found in the sixth world.^[18]

Some of the sūtra works furnishes details about dancing and singing. In the Āpastamba gṛhyasūtra there is reference to music.—

“gāyatamiti”^[19]

The well known Yājñavalkyasmṛti says that if vīṇā is played as a devotional offering with flawless śruti, svara and tāla, this itself leads to salvation (mokṣa).

vīṇā vādana tatvajñaḥ śruti jāti viśāradaḥ |
tālajñaśca aprayatnena mokṣamārgaṃ sa gacchati ||

The earliest usage of ‘naṭ’ from which the term nāṭya, is found in Aṣṭādyayī. Pāṇinī mentions about naṭasūtras, hand-book on aphorisms. These aphorisms on the science of nāṭya were prepared by two earlier authors’ Śilālin and Kṛśāśva.^[20] Pāṇini mentions that at the time of mahāvratastoma rite, wives of the priests and young maidens danced. The orchestral band inclusive of vocalists and the accompanying artiste of vīṇā are mentioned.

The art of dancing was confined to women alone in the period of Patañjali. He refers female dancers as nartakika. Mahābhāṣya refers to the actors taking feminine roles as Bhrukumsa^[21] and the trainers of actors as Śobhanaka^[22]. Patañjali mentions some musical instruments like drum (mṛdaṅga), conch (śaṅkha), flute (tuṇava) and another instrument of the guitar type vīṇā having seven-strings.^[23] One proficient in playing on mṛdaṅga was known as mārdaṅgika.^[24]

In the Kāmasūtra of Vātsyāyana dated 2^nd century B. C. refers to gītam, vādyam, nṛtyam, nepathyaprayogāḥ, nāṭakākhyāyikā darśanaṃ as sixty-four raṅga vidyā.^[25] This marks as progressive development in the field of music and dance. The Arthaśāstra mentions about naṭas and nartakas.^[26] The Manusmṛti that is a Dharmaśāstra has some references to dance and music.

In the Siddhānta Kaumudī, the specialist in the art of story telling, naṭa is mentioned in the sense of dancing and acting.^[27] The dancing girls go to the bride’s village in a procession from the bridegroom’s village along with the accompaniment of musicians. This ceremony is prescribed in the sūtra of Sāṅkhyāyana. A passage from the Āpastamba Dharmasūtra says that the women possessed a complete knowledge of all the branches of art. In the Kātyāyana Śrautasūtra, nṛtta, gīta and vāditra are mentioned.^[28]

2. Classical period

The itihāsas, purāṇas and kāvyas have many references about the various art forms. Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata have influenced all Hindu art through the ages. The Rāmāyaṇa refers to naṭa, nartaka, gāyaka, and so on.^[29] All through the description of the royal entertainments provided by the sage Bharadvāja to Bharata and his army, there is reference to Nārada, Tuṃburu and gāndharvas and to various apsaras as dancers. In the Kiṣkindākāṇḍa, Svayamprabhu refers to dance and music. In the Sundarakāṇḍa experts in dance and instrumental music are referred to while describing Rāvaṇa’s harem.

The Mahābhārata also refers to terms like nṛtta, gīta, vāditra, nartaka, naṭa, gāyaka, and so on.^[30] This work mentions that the Gāndharvas and Apsaras delighted the priests in the intervals of sacrificial rites by the arts of dance and music. In this epic, we are told how Arjuna learnt the art of dance from Citrasena and during the incognito stay of the Pāṇḍavas in Virāṭa kingdom he as the eunuch brāḥmaṇa, taught this art to Uttarā, the daughter of the King. Subhadrā, the sister of Kṛṣṇa and the queen of Arjuna, was an expert in dancing.

Many Purāṇas makes references of dance and music. Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa states that,

“There is indeed no success in dancing for one who is beautyless.”

arūpasya nṛtyam vyartham |
yathā-nṛtyenālamarūpeṇa siddhirnāṭyasya rūpataḥ |^[31]

Here we find Ṛtodvaja, son of king Śakrajit, who is fond of dance and music. All heavenly beings like Apsaras, Gāndarvas, Nārada and Tuṃburu worship the Sun God by dancing and singing. Chapter twenty-three of this purāṇa deals with the technicalities of music.^[32] Gāndharva Veda is included among the eighteen subjects of study.^[33]

In Vāyu purāṇa, Śiva is referred to as one who is fond of dance.

namostu nṛtyaśīlāya vādya nṛtya priyāya ca |^[34]

Gīta, vādya, nṛtya and nāṭya are considered the foremost among the sixty-four arts. Reference to these arts is found in many Sanskrit works. The works, which give the list of the name of the arts, are Śivatantra,^[35] Sukranītisāra, Jayamaṅgala, Samavāyasūtra, Lalitavistara, Sūtrālaṅkāra, Kalpāntaravācyāni, and so on.

In Raghuvaṃśa, Agnivarṇa is described as an adept in tāla and laya. When he was playing upon the puṣkara he inspired the dancing girls, who erred in their gesticulations, though their masters were standing by their sides.^[36] He contended for superiority with the dance masters who were proficient in abhinayas namely vācika, āṅgika and sāttvika.^[37] This type of abhinaya has been by explained by Bharata as sāmānya abhinaya. The ālīdha posture suitable for shooting with the bow and arrow mentioned by Bharata is referred here.^[38] In the description of the spring season, the creepers in the garden with their leaves shaken by the winds are compared with the dancers keeping laya within their hands.^[39]

In Kumārasambhava, the enactment of nāṭya by the Apsaras is mentioned. Kālidāsa says, ‘Nāṭya is full of graceful body movements (aṅgahāras), where the four styles (vṛttis) were displayed at various junctures and had different notes in the transition of emotions.’^[40] ‘On the birth of Kumāra, as the musical instruments aṅkya, āliṅgya and ūrdhvaka sounded, the Apsaras danced according to the lilt of the well measured songs with relish, dripping with emotions and sentiments in which words coalesced well.’^[41] The gait of Apsaras,^[42] the gait of Pārvatī compared with rājahaṃsī^[43] and a creeper^[44] and her gait in sṛṅgāra after seeing Śiva are described in a very beautiful manner.^[45]

In Megadūta, a reference to the dancing girls says,‘their waist zones are jingling at the planting of their feet and their hands are fatigued by the waving of chowries.’^[46] This is called deśika in Nṛtyasarvasva, which refers to the dancing girls, loins girdled up with jingling tones and having in their feet anklets furnished with tinkling bells, dance with measured steps set down as stated intervals, holding in their hands a vīṇā, a ball, the hem of their garment, chowries and so on.^[47]

In Śisupālavadha, there is reference to dancing. “She walked, with a step languid through love, with her anklets sounding with a graver music then when in brisker movement, with her lotus like left foot gracefully dancing, while planting the other one not so coquettishly”.^[48] In Daśakumāracarita, Dandin refers to karaṇas and aṅgahāras as performed by the Kumāra in disguise of a naṭa and also princess Kandukāvatī executing the karaṇas and maṇḍalas. He describes various movements in the design of lotus, snake, etc.^[49] These are similar to the piṇḍis given by Bharata.

In Jānakīharaṇa, there is a reference to the dancer proficient in the depiction of the sāttvika bhāvas.^[50] In Gadyakarṇāmṛta the spring season is referred to as the dance master, who teaches lāsya, to the creepers which are swaying in the breeze.^[51] While describing the capital city, the silken banner cloth is described as executing ‘recakas’ due to the wind.^[52] The banners on the chariot which moved softly in the wind are portrayed as doing the delicate movements of lāsya.^[53] The battlefield with full of beheaded bunks of solders, which performed violent actions, is compared to a theatre where the forceful dance tāṇḍava is performed.^[54]

Kuṭṭanīmata of Dāmodaragupta describes the performance of the first act of Ratnāvali by the courtesans.^[55] Dance was regarded as a śilpa. Preṅkhaṇaka, a kind of dance and parikrama movement of the feet in dance known as cāris are mentioned. Pādamātra is explained as keeping time with feet. Hand gestures like sandaṃśa and kaṭakāmukha are mentioned.^[56] Rājataraṅgiṇi mentions thirty-two modes of dancing. Lalitavistara calls dance as vādyanṛtya, dancing to the accompaniment of instrumental music. In Bāṇa’s Harṣacarita a performance of ārabhaṭi vṛtti is described where the actors move about with blowing hair due to their virile movements. Harivaṃśa refers to nāṭaka.^[57]

Kādambari mentions that the techniques of dance are given by Bharata.

bharatādipraṇītāni nṛtya śāstrāṇi |

Śiva rahasya describes the form of Nṛtta mūrti. Lord Śiva has many forms but above all he is celebrated as Naṭarāja, the king of dancers, and worshiped by the dancers as their patron. The form of Naṭarāja who performs the Ānanda tāṇḍava represents the pañca kriyas namely the sṛṣṭi, sthiti, saṃhāra, tirobhāva and anugraha. The Lord dancing with kuñcita pāda is described.^[58]

Muktimārgānucintanam describes Śiva as Ānandamūrti who performs the ānanda tāṇḍava which leads one to cross over the ocean of saṃsāra.^[59] The tāṇḍava of Śiva along with the musicians Tumburu and Nārada singing the songs and Nandi handling the cymbals is described.^[60] The dance of Muruga on seeing Śiva is also explained.^[61]

Saduktikarṇāmṛta describes the beautiful upward, circular and speedy movements of Śiva’s sandhyā tāṇḍava at the end of the kalpa.^[62] Haravijaya describes Lord Śiva performing the daṇḍāpadaṃ karaṇa gracefully, which was similar to the one performed by Lord Visṇu in his Vamaṇa avatāra.^[63] Lord Śiva performing the aṅgahāras, karaṇas, nṛtta hastas, maṇḍalas and recakas are also given.^[64] Śivapādādikeśa varṇanam, Śivakeśādipāda varṇanam, Sri Śivarahasyam, Strotrārṇavam, Kuñcitāṅgristavam, and so on, explicitly describes the dance of Śiva. Kṛṣṇalīlātaraṅgiṇī, Nārāyaṇīyam, and the like, refers to Krishna’s kāliṅganartana and rāsakrīḍā.

The Nāṭyavarga of Nāmaliṅgānuśāsana of Amarasiṃha refers to this art.

śailālinastu śailūṣā jāyājīvā kṛśāśvinaḥ |
bharatā ityapi naṭāścāraṇāstu kuśīlavāḥ ||^[65]

Amarakośa further contains terms like nartakī and lāsikā for female actors. nartakīlāsikesame | Names are enlisted for male actors and males who take female roles.

bhrakuṃsaśca bhrukuṃsaśca bhrūkuṃsaśceti nartakaḥ |
strīveṣadhārī puruṣo nāṭyoktaugaṇikājjukā ||^[66]

Śabdaratnākara says,

‘Nāṭya is referred to as tauryatṛka, a combination of nṛtya, gīta and vādya.’

tauryatrikaṃ nṛtyagītavādyaṃ nāṭyaṃ ca tata trayam |

The evidences for music, dance, mime and dialogues are found in Vedas, purāṇas, saṃhitas, sūtras, kāvyas, śāstras and many other Sanskrit works. It was considered as the foremost among the arts and was learnt and practsed in society. It was also a pastime during this period. Thus, from the Vedic, Epic and classical periods, dance and drama had come through as an uninterrupted stream.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Prof.Jaitly a.i.o.conference paper 1959.

[2]:

Ṛgveda 1.30.7; 8.24.9; 8.37.7; 8.81.3; 10.18.3; 10.29.2;

[3]:

Ibid.1.92.4;

[4]:

Ibid.9.56.3;

[5]:

Ibid.1.28.5; 2.43.3; 10.32.4;10.135.7;

[6]:

Śukla-yajurveda:35.6;

[7]:

Atharva-veda:12.1.41; 4.9.8;

[8]:

Nāṭyaśāstra XXVIII.9.

[9]:

Ibid.Com.p.7.

[10]:

Saṅgīta-ratnāvalī com.pp.3,4.

[11]:

Rāmāyaṇa: I.4.10; II,2,35;

[12]:

Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra-G.H.Tarlekar. p.2,3.

[13]:

Yaj.Sam. VI. 7. VII.5.

[14]:

Kauśītakī-brāḥmaṇa XVII.8.

[15]:

San.Br.29.5.

[16]:

Sat.Br. III. 2.4.3-6; XIII.4.3.5;

[17]:

Taittirīya-brāḥmaṇa III. 2.1. Ibid.

[18]:

Jaiminīya-brāḥmaṇa I. 42.

[19]:

Āp.Gr. su. 14.4

[20]:

Aṣṭādhyāyī: 4.2.66; 3.110-111.129.

[21]:

Mahābhāṣya: IV.1-3

[22]:

Ibid. III.1-26

[23]:

Mahābhāṣya:II.2-34

[24]:

Ibid.IV.4-55

[25]:

Kām.Sūt: 1.3.16.,1.4.421.

[26]:

Artha-śāstra: II 27.25.

[27]:

Siddhānta-kaumudī: p.444.

[28]:

Kātsyāyana-śrauta-sūtra: XXI.P.867.

[29]:

Rāmāyaṇa: III.15.13.

[30]:

Mahābhārata: IV.39.55-56.

[31]:

Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa: I.36.

[32]:

Ibid.XXIII. 51-54.

[33]:

Vāyupurāṇa: 24.2.39.

[34]:

Ibid.61.78-80.

[35]:

As quoted in Śabdakalpadruma Vol.II.p.58.

[36]:

Raghuvaṃśa: 19.14.

[37]:

Ibid.XIX.36.

[38]:

Ibid.III.52.

[39]:

Ibid.IX.35.

[40]:

Kumārasambhava: VII.91.

[41]:

Ibid.XI.36.

[42]:

Ibid.I.4.

[43]:

Ibid.I.34.

[44]:

Ibid.III.54.

[45]:

Ibid.V.85.

[46]:

Megasandeśa I.38.

[47]:

Ibid.Com. p.30.

[48]:

Śiśupālavadha VII.18.

[49]:

Daśakumara-carita VI.

[50]:

Jānakīharaṇa: VIII.20.

[51]:

Gadyakarṇāmṛta: p 39.

[52]:

Ibid. p.61.

[53]:

Ibid.p 59.

[54]:

Ibid.p 33.

[55]:

Kuṭṭanīmata: 88-928.

[56]:

Ibid.878, 547, 86, 804, 928, 87, 759

[57]:

Harivaṃśa: II. 91.26;93.28;

[58]:

Siv.R: I.33. 5 -15.

[59]:

Muktimārgānucintana: II.84.

[60]:

Ibid. II.95.

[61]:

Ibid.II.101.

[62]:

Saduktikarṇāmṛta:3,5.

[63]:

Haravijaya: II.43.

[64]:

Ibid.II.36.59.

[65]:

Nāmaliṅgānuśāsana N.V. 1.7.

[66]:

Ibid.1.7.429, 430