Expiatory Rites in Keralite Tantra
by T. S. Syamkumar | 2017 | 59,416 words
This page relates ‘Historical Milieu of Expiatory Rites’ of the study on Expiatory Rites in Sanskrit literature and ancient Indian religion and society, with special reference to Keralite Tantra. Further references to texts include those found in Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism as well as Dharmashastra literature. This study also investigates temple records and inscriptions of Kerala in order to demonstrate the connection between social life and expiatory rites and its evolution.
8 (a). Historical Milieu of Expiatory Rites
Historically, the 9th to 13th centuries CE is the period of centralized administration under the Ceras of Mahodayapuraṃ and of growing temple centered Brahmin settlements in Kerala.[1] In this age, many temples were founded on every part of Kerala.[2] Some of them are Kaṇḍiyūr, Ayirūr, Pārthivapuraṃ, Tiruvañcikkuḷaṃ, Tiruvalla, Tṛkkoṭittānaṃ, Tṛkkākkara, Tirumūḻikkuḷaṃ, Perunna, Airāṇi-kkuḷaṃ, Tirumiṟṟakkodu, Tṛccaṃbaraṃ etc.[3] Lunet de Lajonquire observed that a multi-centered society where each village was planned and developed on a central temple.[4] During this time, many Tantric treatises originated in Kerala, they were closely related to temple rituals. These Tantric literatures are the symbols of formation of a script-based society. The origin of Tantric texts encouraged Sanskritization in the spiritual, religious domains and practical fields of Kerala culture and society.[5] Kollam Rāmeśvarattukoyil inscription (CE 1102) proved that expiatory rites were also performed in this period. This inscription recorded king Rāmavarma’s gifts to the temple as an act expiating his sin of offending the Brāhmaṇas.[6] Many Tantric texts belong to this age, like Prayogamañjarī, Viṣṇusaṃhitā, Īśānaśivagurudevapaddhati, Śaivāgamanibandhana and Puṭayūrbhāṣa.
The composing period of Tantric manuals is very important. The orthodox Brahmanical diplomatic ideas, Bhakti movements, codes of conduct recorded in temples in Kaccaṃs (agreements) have helped to regenerate the expiatory rites.
Here the observation of Prof. Ilamkulam Kunhan Pillai is noteworthy. He says,
“There was a strict royal supervision through the Koyiladhikārikal over the temples and that mismanagement of the temple property by the Ūrāḷar was there for rare. The large tracts of land came under the control of the Brahmins as the custodians of temple to which people transferred their ownership of land for enjoying exemption from taxes and attaining Mokṣa. This, not only led to the alienation of the political authority of the king and deprivation of royal right to punish the Brahmin offenders, but also to the assertion of the Brahmins as the Śāstraic authority prescribing punishments to the kings for offending Brāhmaṇas.”[7]
It is the visible result of Brahmanical hierarchy. Mūḻikkuḷaṃ Kaccaṃ[8] controlled the corruptions and lewdness of Brahmins in temples. It is known from the records that the Brāhmaṇas occupied the Devasvam property in the name of Brahmasvam. After establishing the regulation, the Brahmin authority was restrained to the temple. Consequently, the Brahmins controlled and occupied land and money in their literary and spiritual power. Dāna and Dakṣiṇā concepts are the ideas of Brahmins to occupy silver, gold and land. Expiatory rites in Kerala Tantric texts are the best examples of social and economical control mechanisms of Brahmanical ideology. Several original temple records evidently attest to facilitate expiatory rites which were also performed in temples.
Footnotes and references:
[2]:
Ibid.
[3]:
Gangadharan, T.K., op.cit., p.187.
[4]:
Saccidanada Sahai, The Hindu Temples in Southeast Asia Their Role in Social, Economical and Political Formations, p.135.
[5]:
Sacchidananda Sahai says: “Sanskritization has been used as a conceptual tool in anthropological writings to understand the process by which a low caste or tribe or group takes over the customs, rituals, beliefs, ideology, and style of life of high and in a particular ‘twice born’ (Dvija) caste, leading to the upward mobility in the local caste hierarchy in the modern Indian villages. It normally presupposes either an improvement in the economic or political position of the group concerned, or a higher group self consciousness resulting from its contact with a Saṃskrita tradition. Sanskritization is a many-sided cultural process, in which only a part has any structural relevance. Its impress has been in language, literature, ideology, music, dance, drama, style of life, and ritual.” The Hindu Temples in Southeast Asia Their Role in Social, Economic, and Political Formations, Aryan Books International, New Delhi, 2012, p. 271.
[6]:
Rajan Gurukkal, op.cit., p. 4.
[7]:
Ibid., p. 3-4.
[8]:
For further details see, Narayanan, M.G.S., Perumals of Kerala, pp. 214-216.