2. Temple Culture and Kerala Tantrism

The word temple derived from the Latin expression templum, Sacchidanda Sahai observed that temple denotes primarily a space marked out by an augur for taking observations, a broad open space, a consecrated space, a sanctuary probably related to Greek temenos, reserved or sacred enclosure.^[1] Kesavan Veluthat has considered the eight special features of the role of temple in early medieval South India and these brought out the relation between the temple and state.^[2] Kerala Tantric literature is very much related to temple customary rites and ritual performances. These temple customary rites as well influenced the society. Untouchability, inapproachability, impurity and traditional priesthood of Brahmins are the supreme examples. It evidently shows that temple culture also prompted casteism and impurity. At the same time, temples also encouraged the literary culture. For instance arts like Kūttu, Kūṭiyāṭṭaṃ, iconography and painting flourished in connection with the temple. Although during this period these arts forms like Kūttu, Kūṭiyāṭṭaṃ etc. were only confined to the temple related working class.

Kerala Tantric literature is extremely associated with Namputiri Brahmin tradition, because most of the Tantric treatises are undertaken by these Namputiris. By all means, most of the Brahmins are following Vedic and Smārta traditions. As a result, the Vedic and Smārta rituals made influence on the Kerala Tantric tradition. The Brahmanical Tantric institutions are following the Vedic and Smārta rituals partly or completely.

V. Govindan Namboodiri remarks:

“The Namputiri influenced the social, cultural and political spheres of Kerala for centuries. They were real rulers of Kerala from 11^th to 16^th century. Their supremacy in the religious field goes back further. Temples were the centre of cultural activities from 8^th century. The construction of temples, installation of idols, and worship had been wholly under the control of Namputiris. The rites regarding all these come under Tantra […..] Yet the influence of Vedic tradition in Tantra is found to be notable. It is natural since a section of Namputiris has been keeping the sacrificial tradition alive, though it is only to small extent, till now.”^[3]

Even now most of the Tantric practitioners of Kerala certainly follow the Vedic ritualism, consciously or unintentionally. In Tantric expiation, the influence Vedic tradition can be perceived everywhere.

Most of the Tantric ritual manuals of Kerala recommend the recitation of various Vedic hymns as an act of expiation in various Tantric rituals.^[4] The religious class uses the concept of expiation as a political and cultural power.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Sacchidanada Sahai, The Hindu Temples in South Asia their Role in Social and Political Formations, Aryan Books International, New Delhi, 2012, p. 1.

[2]:

Kesavan Veluthat, “The Temple and the State: Religion and Politics in Early Medieval South India”, State and Society in Pre-Modern South India, ed. Champakalakshmi, R., Cosmo Books, Thrissur, 2002, p. 103.

[3]:

Cf. Govindan Namboodiri, V., Śrauta Sacrifices in Kerala, Publication Division, University of Calicut, 2002, p. 189.

[4]:

The Tantra Manuals of Kerala recommend the Vedic Mantras like Puruṣasūkta, Vālakhilya Mantras, Nārāyaṇasūkta, Śrīsūkta, Āpohiṣṭa Ṛk, Pāvamāna Ṛk, Śrīrudra, Svastisūkta, Śakunasūkta and Mṛtyuñjaya Mantra for expiation. See Viṣṇusaṃhitā, Ch. 25, Tantrasamuccaya, 10.12-14, 15-22, 23-26, 32-36, Tantraprāyaścitta p. 73-76, 86 and Kuḻikkāṭṭupacca, Ch. 10.