Expiatory Rites in Kerala Tantric Ritual Manuals (Introduction)

It is well observed that the Tantric tradition has flourished even in pre-Vedic age and is affirmed that the Tantric rituals existed out of the Vedic religious society.^[1] The Buddhist and Jain Tantric tradition, even though it is considered as later development, is excessively attested in Indian subcontinent and its influences obviously seen in South India and especially in Kerala.^[2] The present study is essentially concentrated on the temple centered Tantras of Kerala. This Tantric tradition of Kerala is to some extent related to Brahmin settlements, because all available Tantric texts are seen written by Brahmins. According to some historians, early Brahmin settlements came in to force in 3^rd century BCE.^[3] Paraśurāma myths indicate that Tantric tradition of Kerala has a long history shrouded in mystery. According to the legends, Paraśurāma created the land of Kerala and afterwards it was given to Brahmins as Dāna. And it is believed that he constructed several temples and then he brought Brahmins from outside Kerala and entrusted them the authority to perform Tantric rituals.^[4] The social and economic milieu of Brahmin settlement and rise of temples in Kerala are interconnected.

Moreover, the History of Keralite Tantra is also related to the Tantric tradition of Tamil Nadu and North India. The early ritual manuals that were known in North were transmitted to South India and well received by the Śaiva followers of Tamil speaking regions. The works of Rāmanātha (Naṭarājapaddhati, CE 1058), Aghoraśivācārya (Kriyākramadyotikā etc., CE 12), Jñānaśiva (Jñānaratnāvalī, CE 12), Trilocanaśiva (commentaries on Somaśambhupaddhati, Brahmaśambhupaddhati etc. CE 12) and the like belong to this eclectic Tantric tradition. The Śaiva and Vaiṣṇava ritual manuals were transmitted to South India and thus got rooted and spread in the land of Kerala and this gave a path for Kerala’s own vast literature on Tantra. It also seems that the Kerala authors brought copies of early Tantra texts to Kerala from North India and Tamil Nadu. The Tantric authors of Kerala had also used the Tantra texts that were only known in North. As in the case of Svarṇagrāma Vāsudeva, who has commented on Tantrasārasaṃgraha, quotes an early Gāruḍa text Kriyākālaguṇottara. Also he quotes more than hundred verses from famous Śaiva Paddhati text Somaśambhu-paddhati in 11^th century CE.^[5] Moreover, Trivikrama, the commentator of Prayogamañjarī, listed several names of Āgamas and ritual manuals as the source material of Prayogamañjarī. They are Pārameśvara, Vijaya, Niśvāsottara, Projhita, Mukhabimba, Santāna, Nārasiṃha, Candrabhāsa, Svāyaṃbhuva, Vistara, Raurava, Mākuṭa, Kiraṇa, Lalita, Āgneya, Vārākhya etc.^[6] The verses seen in the Śaivāgamanibandhana, Kalaśacandrika and Mātṛsadbhāva points out that the Kerala Tantric texts evidently used several Āgamic treatises, popular in South as well as in North, as the source material for the preparation of their Tantric writings.

Kerala Tantric literature has a vast area.^[7] The Tantric manuals of Kerala mostly describe temple centered rituals. Various customs and rituals like Kalaśa, installation ceremony, anointment, procession and expiatory rites were performed in temples. Keralite Tantra texts mainly described the temple-oriented rituals and related subjects like the concept of temple, selection of Mantras, modes of worship, temple architecture, characteristics of idols, purification of idol, rites of installation, rites of festivals, offering of oblation, ritual procession, ritual bath and expiations. Indeed, some variations can be seen in the concept and ritual practices of Kerala before and after the period of Tantrasamuccya. In Pre-Tantrasamuccaya phase, Tantric texts were written with due emphasis on philosophical and mythological aspects, such as Dīkṣā, Ātmārtha-Prāyaścitta etc. The Post-Tantrasamuccaya phase or in other words, the later medieval Tantric writers mainly concentrate only on the practical side of Tantric rituals or temple rituals.^[8] The post Tantrasamuccaya manuals also lack the doctrinal underpinnings provided by the earlier Tantra manuals.