Expiatory Rites in Keralite Tantra
by T. S. Syamkumar | 2017 | 59,416 words
This page relates ‘Expiatory Rites in Vaishnava Tantras’ of the study on Expiatory Rites in Sanskrit literature and ancient Indian religion and society, with special reference to Keralite Tantra. Further references to texts include those found in Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism as well as Dharmashastra literature. This study also investigates temple records and inscriptions of Kerala in order to demonstrate the connection between social life and expiatory rites and its evolution.
Go directly to: Footnotes.
2. Expiatory Rites in Vaiṣṇava Tantras
The commencement of Viṣṇu worships can be seen in Ṛgveda; comparatively Viṣṇu was not a well-known deity in that period. Only two or three hymns are devoted to Viṣṇu in Ṛgveda.[1] The term Vaiṣṇava is used for the worshippers or the devotees of Viṣṇu, Kṛṣṇa, Narasiṃha etc. The term Bhāgavata usually indicates the devotees of Nārāyaṇa;[2] it also indicates a group of priests working in the temples of Viṣṇu.[3] The Besnagar Garuḍa pillar inscription of Heliodorous[4] and Ghosūṇḍi inscription of Sarvatāta proclaim the ancient popularity of Vaiṣṇavism.[5] Generally Vaiṣṇava Tantric tradition is divided in to three schools; Bhāgavata, Pāñcarātra and Vaikhānasa.[6] The Vaikhānasa system is closely related to the Vedic corpus. The Vaikhānasaśrautasūtra and Vaikhānasasmārttasūtra are the important treatises of Vaikhānasa tradition. The two medieval digests like Ānandasaṃhitā and Ādisaṃhitā are related to Yajurveda branch.[7] It is observed that Pāñcarātra School is also known as Bhāgavata School, which is the basic and earliest school of Tantric Vaiṣṇavism. The name Pāñcarātra is most likely connected with the Pañcarātrasatra, a sacrifice performed in five days, referred to in Śatapathabrāhmaṇa.[8] It is considered by tradition that Pāñcarātrasaṃhitās are 108 in number, but more than two hundred works are mentioned.[9] Pāñcarātras like Svāyambhuvapañcarātra, Aṣṭādaśavidhāna and Devāmṛtapañcarātra are the earlier Vaiṣṇava Tantric ritual manuals. It can be seen that these Pāñcarātra texts obviously adopted the Mantras and rituals of Śaivism and Vedism. Most of the modern scholars and the tradition say that Sāttvatā, Jayākyā and Pauṣkara are the authoritative works in this field. These works have enormously influenced the later tradition of Pāñcarātrāgamas. Schrader alludes that Īśvara, Pārameśvara and Pādma are the significant expansions of these works.[10] The Vaiṣṇava temples of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka etc. follow Pāñcarātrāgamas. Prof. Ramacandra Rao observes: “According to Īśvarasaṃhitā (1.64), the Sāttvatā followed in the temple of Nārāyaṇa at Melukote (in Karnataka), the Pauṣkara in the famous Raṅganātha temple at Śrīraṅgam (in Tamil Nadu), and Jayākyā in the Vardarāja temple at Kāñcīpuraṃ (also in Tamil Nadu).”[11] Rao further observes that Viṣṇusaṃhitā is being followed for performing in the Vaiṣṇava temples of Kerala. But recently it is not directly seen followed, even though, its influences can be seen in later Tantric manuals of Kerala.
The study of Pañcarātras and Śaiva Tantras clearly shows that the main rituals are similar in both traditions. Most of Śaivite and Vedic culture are implicitly adapted in Pāñcarātrasaṃhitas. In this context Diwakar Acharya says thus: “….the influence of Śaivism over Pañcarātra Vaiṣṇavism in the early medieval period, at a time when Vaiṣṇavism was beginning a process of self transformation that involved partly resting itself in the mould of Tantric Śaivism. Besides, these also speak of the influence of late Vedic and Smārta ritual system over the Pāñcarātra ritual system.”[12] Pāñcarātras mostly used the Vedic and Śaivite Mantras in the worshipping and other ceremonies like installation and Homa sacrifices of Viṣṇu, including expiatory rituals.[13] In the discussion of early Tantric Vaiṣṇavism and the expiatory rituals, the works like Svāyaṃbhuvapañcarātra, Devāmṛtapañcarātra and Aṣṭādaśavidhāna are very significant. Scholars argued that the period of these Pāñcarātras is between eleventh and twelfth centuries CE.[14] These earliest Vaiṣṇava Tantras do not deal with expiatory rites; but they describe Pacificatory rites for all types of obstacles and impurities. According to Sāttvatasaṃhitā, due expiations are to be performed before the initiation.[15] It is believed that a sin is a blemish of a Sādhaka. Hence this text directs to perform the expiation of Kṛchra Vrata, Atikṛchra, reciting Mantras of Viṣṇu, drinking of Brahmatīrtha and Pañcagavya for cleansing of sins. In the excess of sins, it predominantly says to facilitate a gift of gold as an expiatory rite.[16] According to this text, the number of expiations to be performed by Kṣatriyas, Vaiṣyas and Śūdras should increase in order.[17] The Sāttvatasaṃhitā does not deal with expiations related to temple rituals, whereas Pauṣkarasaṃhitā and Śrīpuruṣottamasaṃhitā describe these. The Pauṣkara discusses the performance of expiation for the damage and defect of Viṣṇu idol.[18] The expiations suggested here are fasting, Dāna, gift of food, reciting the Dvādaśākṣaramantra and Aṣṭākṣara Mantra of Vāsudeva.[19] The Śrīpuruṣottamasaṃhitā also includes the similar ideas.[20] And it distinctly states the causes leading to expiations. They are damages and defects of an idol, flagstaff and temple premises, omission of daily rituals, omission of light, entering of a Caṇḍāla, cat, rat and cocks, birth and death in temple courtyard, presence of excretion and urine in shrine, presence of impure substances, entering of thief in temple, burning of umbrella and other substances of the deity, face to face placing of idols of two deities, shaking and falling down of an idol etc.[21] For avoidance of these impurities, it suggest sprinkling of water (Puṇyāha), Kalaśa, reciting the Viṣṇusūkta, Aghamarṣaṇasūkta and Śāntisūkta, feasting of a Brahmin with Dakṣiṇa and Śāntihoma.[22]
The early Vaiṣṇava ritual manuals (the Pāñcarātrāgamas) do not give details of expiatory rituals. In course of time the number of expiatory rites related to the impurity concept basing the caste system, have been increased. It might be result of the Brahminisation of Vaiṣṇava Tantra, as the Varṇa system and related rites are the visible features of Vedic Smārtta Brahmins. Influence of Varṇa system and related rites of Smārtta Brahmins were obviously seen in later versions of Vaiṣṇava ritual manuals. In fact in the early period, the Vedic authorities considered that the Pāñcarātriṃs were unorthodox sinners and belong to outcastes. Some Purāṇas and Smṛtis also shared the same view. The Dharma legal authorities of Viṣṇu, Sūta, Śatātapa, Hārita and Bodhāyana equally say that the Pāñcarātriṃs are outcastes. Also Kūrmapurāṇa prohibited inviting the Pāñcarātriṃs to the house hold customs.[23] Gradually the Brahmins appropriated with the Tantric ideals and practices. Historically it can be assumed that the Brahmins have interpolated their Varṇa concept and concept of impurity in all Tantric manuals. Evidently quoting the words of Medhātithi, Sanderson has precisely pointed out the Vaidika exclusivity and persecution of Brahmanism towards other religious sects.[24]
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
Ṛgveda, 1.154.2-3,155. 4-5,7.100.3-5 and 8.9.7.
[2]:
[3]:
Ibid., p. 232.
[4]:
Historically, Besnagar Garuḍa pillar inscription of Heliodorous is a first known inscription of Vaiṣṇavism in India. The date of this inscription is 113 BCE. Heliodorous was a Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra. The pillar surmounted by a sculpture of Garuḍa. And it was dedicated to lord Vāsudeva. See Avari, Burjor, India: The Ancient Past A History of Indian Subcontinent from c. 7000 BCE to CE 1200, Routledge, p.167. For further details see, Romila Thapper, Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, University of California Press, pp. 216-217.
[5]:
The Ghosundi is a village in the Chittorgarh district of Rajasthan. The Ghosundi inscription of the king Sarvatāta dated in between 2nd and 1st century BCE. This inscription refers to the construction of an enclosure in Narayan Vatika for the worship of Saṅkarṣaṇa and Vāsudeva. See, Hand Book of Victoria Hall Museum of Udaipur, Department of Archeology and Museums, Government of Rajashtan, 1961, p. 7.
[6]:
According to Gerad Colas Bhāgavata is the name of Brahmin actors of Kuchipuḍy who enact plays on Vaiṣṇava themes in the Telugu speaking region. Vide Gerad Colas, op.cit., p. 239. A ninth century Cambodian inscription also mentions three types of Vaiṣṇavas; Pañcarātra, Bhāgavata and Sāttvatas. Bāṇa in his Harṣacarita clearly mentions Bhāgavata and Pañcarātrikas as two distinct groups. Vide Gerad Colas, op.cit., p. 238. In Tantra Literature of Kerala, N.P. Unni, discussed five types of Pañcarātra schools. They are Vaikhānasa, Sāttvata, Śikhiṃs, Ekānthika and Mūlaka. p. 46.
[7]:
Gerad Colas, op.cit., p. 236.
[8]:
Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 13.6.1.1. Varadachary notes: “The word Pāñcarātrā is singular in number and neuter in gender being a collective noun. The word must then mean the system; that has relationship to five nights or an occurrence during that period. [ ] The word Pañca refers to the five objects of the senses, five elements, and five qualities of the elements, five forms of the Viṣṇu, five sacraments, and five sages. All other systems become dark, which is the sense of the word Rātri, before the Pāñcarātra which shines like the Sun. The four Vyūha deities Keśava, Nārāyaṇa, and others constitute the group of five and this gives the name Pāñcarātra. [……] The name Pāñcarātra must therefore mean the fivefold division of the day.” See Pāñcarātrāgma, Tirumala Tiruppati Deavasthanamas, Tiruppati, 2001, pp.14-17.
[9]:
See The Āgama Encyclopedia, Vol. I, p.18; and also see the appendix of this same volume. In his study, Schrader has listed 210 names of Pāñcarātrāgamas. See Schrader, F.O., Introduction to the Pāñcarātrā and the Ahirbudhnya Saṃhitā, Adyar Library, Madras, 1916, pp. 8-11. He had interestingly discussed the home and real place of Pāñcarātrāgamas: “The Pāñcarātrā must have originated in the North of India and subsequently spread to the south. Had the opposite taken place, most of the extant Saṃhitās would somehow betray this fact, which is not the case. The story of the Śvetadvīpa seems even to point to the extreme north, and do some Saṃhitās, among them Ahirbudhnya, as we shall see. The thesis may therefore be advanced that all Saṃhitās betraying a South Indian (Dravidian) origin belong to the later stock of the literature.” Ibid., p. 16. But V. Varadachary opines that the Pāñcarātrāgamas must have been originated in the Kashmir region. Varadachary gives many evidences for supporting of his argument: “… the Āgamaḍaṃbara, which was written by Jayantabhaṭṭa (AD 880) of Kashmir, refers to the practices of the followers of the Pāñcarātrā system. There is no evidence to prove that the Pāñcarātrikas of the earliest periods lived in a place other than Kashmir. Secondly the word Śaktipāta is used to refer to the favour of the deity. This word occurs in the Kashmir Śaivite texts. Thirdly, the birch-bark which grows only in Kashmir is enjoined in the early Pāñcarātra text for using it to draw the Yantra of the deities. Fourthly the Pāñcarātra texts Pauṣkara Saṃhitā mentions the names of the rivers from which water is to be brought for giving bath to the deity. Gaṅga is sated there to flow in the east, Yamuna in the south east, and Sarasvati in the south. The region with reference to which these directions are mentioned must only be Kashmir. Lastly, the passages from Pāñcarātra texts, are quoted by Utpala (850 AD) in his Spandapradīpikā.” See Varadachary, V., Pāñcarātrāgma, pp. 17-19.
[10]:
Schrader gives the chorology of the ancient Saṃhitās as follows: 1. Pauṣkra 2. Sāttvta 3. Ahirbudhnya 4. Pārameśvra 5. Pādma and 6. Īśvara. He significantly says that Pauṣkara, Sāttvata and Jaya are more authoritative works in the Pāñcarātra world. Schrader, op. cit., p. 20f.
[11]:
Ibid., p. 44.
[12]:
Vide Diwakar Acharya, Early Tantric Vaiṣṇavism: Three Newly Discovered Works of The Pañcarātra, French Institute Pondicherry, 2015, pp. viii-x.
[13]:
For a detailed discussion of the topic vide Diwakar Acharya, op.cit., p. lviii-lxiv.
[14]:
The present text is critically edited by Diwakar Acharya depending on the 11th and 12th century Nepalese palm leaf manuscripts.
[15]:
[16]:
[17]:
nṛpaviṭchūdrajātīya ekaikaṃ vardhayet kramāt |
māsamekādikāt kālāt samārabhya yathākramam || Sāttvatasaṃhitā, 16.22.
[18]:
samāhṛteṣu mantreṣu cālyamāneṣu pauṣkara |
bhaṅge karmavaśājjāte pratimāsu pramādataḥ || Pauṣkarasaṃhitā, 43.151.
[19]:
Pauṣkarasaṃhitā, 43.153-157.
[20]:
Śrīpuruṣottamasaṃhitā, 30.3-5.
[21]:
śruṇu brahman pravakṣyāmi prāsāde cāṅgabhaṅgake |
dhvaje prabhāyāṃ pīṭhe ca gopure cāyudhe'pi ca ||
biṃmbe caivāṅgabhaṅgādisandhāne tu navīkṛte |
nityapūjāvihīne ca nityadīpādināśane ||
mārjālamūṣikāgaurīmaraṇe mandirāṅgaṇe |
cāṇḍālaśabarādyaiśca spṛṣṭe bimbe tathaiva ca ||
sve kukkuṭakākādijanane maraṇe'pi ca |
mandire malamūtrādisparśadoṣastu sambhave ||
kṛmikīṭādiduṣṭasya haviṣo vinivedane |
devasya hasane caiva calane rodane tathā ||
valmīkādisamutpanne mandire maṇḍape'pi vā |
ajñātacorasaṃspṛṣṭe khadyotasparśane tathā ||
chatracāmaravastrāṇāṃ dahane jvalitāgninā |
devasya cānyadevasya anyonyābhimukhe'pi vā ||
varṣodakaistu saṃspṛṣṭe bimbe pādukayostathā |
ālaye madhusamprāpte vajrapāte'pi vā guru ||
bimbasya calane caiva patane dahane'pi ca |
evamādinimitteṣu samprokṣaṇamathācaret || Śrīpuruṣottamasaṃhitā, 30.36-44.
[22]:
Ibid., 30.45-51.
[23]:
Kūrmapurāṇa, 1.11.272-273; Also vide The Āgama Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, p. 54.
[24]:
He says thus: “So all those outside (the Veda) namely the worshippers of sun (Bhojaka), the followers of Vaiṣṇava, the Jainas, the (Buddhist) deniers of the self (Anātmavādi), the Pāśupata, and the rest hold that their doctrines have been authored by exceptional persons or deities who have had direct experience of the truth they teach. They do not claim that their religious practices derive (like ours) from the (eternal and unauthored - Apauruṣeya) Veda; and indeed their teachings contain doctrines that directly contradict it.” Cf. Sanderson, A., “Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion during the Early Medieval Period”, pp.159-160. Sanderson further notes: “the south Indian Vaiṣṇava Yāmuna cites a text without attribution in his Āgamaprāmāṇya that rules on the authority of Smṛti that the term Pāṣaṇḍaṃ covers the whole range of non-Vaidika systems: the Vaiṣṇava Pāñcarātra the Śaiva [Mantramārga], the Pāśupata, the Kāpālika, Buddhism, and Jainism.” Ibid., p. 162-163, fn. 15.