5.2. Expiatory Rites in Brāhmaṇas

Brāhmaṇa texts show the second stage in the growth of Vedic literature.^[1] They elucidate the Yajña rites and their latent meanings. It was during the period of the Brāhmaṇas that Yāgas and Yajñas acquired importance in the society and the preeminence of the priests had greatly increased. Brahmanical religion divides the Vedic corpus into two categories of texts; Mantra and Brāhmaṇa.^[2] Āraṇyakas are considered as the part of Brāhmaṇa and Upaniṣads are the chapters of Āraṇyakas. During the periods of Brāhmaṇas when the Yajña rituals were modified, a Brahman who was specified in Atharvaveda was assigned the duty of doing the expiatory rites for faults committed in Yajñas. It is to be noted that the Ṛgvedic people used the expiations mostly for their individual sinful acts. However, in the period of Brāhmaṇas expiatory rituals were often used for resolving mistakes occurred in Yāgas and Yajñas.

Aitareyabrāhmaṇa describes expiations for errors in the Agnihotra.^[3] The Sāmavidhānabrāhmaṇa recommends that Sāmaṃs are to be chanted repeatedly for at least hundred times as the expiation for all sins.^[4] In connection with the Brāhmaṇa texts, in later periods, Śrautasūtras provide descriptions of expiatory rituals along with the instructions of the performance like Darśapūrṇamāsa and Soma sacrifices.^[5]

Types of Expiations in Brāhmaṇas

Expiatory rites were seen increasing in the period of Brāhmaṇas. It was becoming more and more complex also. There were many small or big expiatory rituals necessarily in all types of Yāgas and Yajñas. In addition, the authorities of the period considered that mistakes in the sacrificial performances simultaneously affected the sacrifice and priests. Therefore, they strictly followed expiatory rituals for the removal of harmful effects of mistakes.^[6] According to the orthopraxy concepts of Brāhmaṇas, any form of error or faults committed in the sacrificial acts gradually affect the completion and success of the sacrifice.^[7]

In a broad sense the expiatory rituals of the Brāhmaṇas may be divided in to seven:^[8]

1. Reciting Vedic hymns (Mantrajapa),
2. Offerings,
3. Substitutes,
4. Ritual gifts to the priests,
5. Symbolical performances,
6. Non-Ritual Expiatory rites and
7. Intermediate Initiation (Avāntaradīkṣā).

Some examples are given below:

1) Reciting Mantras:

For various contexts, the Brāhmaṇa texts recommend the recitation of sacred Mantras of Vedas as expiation. At the time when the Soma is being carried to the place of sacrifice, the Soma cart might produce some noise of creaking, which is considered as inauspicious. For removing the harmful effects of this, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa requests chanting the Vedic Mantra starting with svaṃ goṣṭham āvadattaṃ.^[9] In addition, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa recommends Ṛk or Yajus for uttering during the sacrificial act of expiation for break of silence.^[10] Moreover the recitation of Vyāhṛtis is named Sarvaprāyaścitti for all type of unknown mistakes.^[11] In this way, the Brāhmaṇa texts suggest chanting of various Vedic Mantras for removing the bad effects of ritual mistakes and thus for the perfection of the sacrificial acts.

2) Offerings:

The Brāhmaṇa treatises suggest that mistakes are to be atoned by some offerings. For that offering, the priests used a variety of materials like Caru, Havis, ghee and milk. Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, chooses a cake made of rice on eight potsherds offered to Agnivīthi for removing the bad effects of mixing of Gārhapatya and Āhavanīya fire. According to the concept of Brāhmaṇas the Gārhapatya fire is used only for domestic rites and the mixing of Gārhapatya and Āhavanīya fires is a harmful mistake.^[12] Taittarīya-brāhmaṇa recommends offering eight cakes on fire for removing the mistake of mixing with the Āhitā fires.^[13] When the fires are put out, at that time, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa suggests to make some offerings to Agni.^[14] If the Pavitra is lost at the time of sacrifice, Aitareya-brāhmaṇa advises to make an offering to Agni.^[15] In the Aśvamedha sacrifice, if any eye diseases befalls on the horse, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa recommends a Caru to be given to Sūrya.^[16]

3) Substitutes:

Substituting the materials to be used in particular rites is considered as another form of expiation in Brāhmaṇas. Aitareya-brāhmaṇa gives interesting information about this expiation. If the offering spoon is split at the time of sacrifice, requests another spoon for the sacrifice.^[17] The use of broken spoon in rites is considered as inauspicious. Thus, the use of substitute is expiation. In the same way, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa directs the use of another horse in the loss of Aśvamedha horse.^[18] Jaiminīya-brāhmaṇa advices to use a new stone or Udumbara wood or Palāśa wood, if the Soma pressing stone is broken.^[19] When Soma plant is not available, at that time Tāṇḍyabrāhmaṇa recommends the use of Pūtikā plants. If Pūtika is not available, the Arjunā plants are to be used.^[20] If the fire-pan is broken, another is prepared; it is an expiation recommended by Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa^[21] These types of expiations have some visible and practical value.

4) Ritual Gifts to the Priests:

Ritual gifts like Dāna were also advised in Brāhmaṇas as expiatory rites. For instance, if in the Agnihotra cow gives milk with blood, for the removing of its bad effect, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa says that the same cow shall be gifted to a Brahmin.^[22] Gopathabrāhmaṇa recommends donating another white cow to a Brahmin as expiation.^[23]

5) Symbolic Performance:

In some cases symbolic performances act as expiation. The evening Agnihotra is to be performed before the sunset. If it is not done so, the performer should put gold in front of him.^[24] The gold represents sun, for it is pure light and the sun is also pure light. In the morning, Agnihotra is to be performed before the sun rises; but if it is late, silver is to be put, silver represents the moon and there by the night. Thus, symbolically the Agnihotra is offered correctly.^[25] Similarly if the sun were to set on ones Vasatīvarī water, a fire brand or a piece of gold is to be used in order to represent the sun.^[26]

6) Non Ritual Expiatory Rites:

In some occasions, expiatory rituals are performed totally in a non-ritual character; it is only performed in a practical manner. For example, if any one’s Agnihotra-cow giving less milk, a lot of grass is to be given for eating as expiation. At this time, no expiatory ritual has to be performed really. Here only giving the grass to the cow for eating is expiation.^[27]

7) Avāntaradīkṣā:

It is also given as an expiation. In Brāhmaṇas various kinds of Dīkṣās were directed to be performed prior to the Sacrifice.^[28] The nature of Avāntaradīkṣā is not similar to that of the same Dīkṣā ceremonies prescribed in Brāhmaṇas. This Dīkṣā is to be performed at the time when one has done something harmful to the vow, which has been accepted at the Dīkṣā ceremony.^[29]

The study of expiatory rites in Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas clearly shows that, the concept of sin and expiatory rites are more and more complex in Brāhmaṇa texts. The number of sacrifices increased in Brāhmaṇas. G.U. Thite has attested that the sacrificial nature was more complex in the period of Brāhmaṇas.^[30] Varṇa system has existed in the period of Brāhmaṇas. Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa and GB request to give gifts to the Brahmins as expiation.^[31] In Ṛgveda the seers were praising various deities for removing their individual sins. In course of time, the concept of sin strongly influenced various rituals. The impact of Karma and Punarjanma concepts powerfully encouraged expiatory rites in this age. In the later phase, it can be seen that the concept of Prāyaścitta attains prolific, polycentric and multiple positions. The Dharmaśāstra authorities have helped to spread out these concepts.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

The date of the Brāhmaṇa texts is controversial. Scholars suggest that the date of some oldest Brāhmṇa text is 900 BCE. The date of Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa is 700 BCE. It has been assumed that the final codification of the Brāhmaṇa texts was complete in the period of pre-Buddhist times, i.e., 600 BCE. See, Klaus Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism, State University of New York Press, 2007, p. 47 and Michael Witzel, “Tracing the Vedic Dialects”, Dialectes dans les literatures Indo-Aryennes, ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, pp. 97-265.

[2]:

mantrabrāhmaṇayorvedanāmadheyam || Yajñaparibhāṣā, 1.33.

[3]:

tadāhuryasyāgnihotramadhiśritamamedhyamāpadyeta kā tatra prāyaścittiriti sarvamevainatsasrucyabhiparyāsicya prāṅudetyahavanīye haitāṃ samidhamabhyādadhātyathottarata āhavanīyasyoṣṇaṃ bhasma nirūhya juhuyānmanasā vā prājāpatyayā | Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 7.5.

[4]:

Sāmavidhānabrāhmaṇa, 1.5.2. It is note-worthy that the Veda could be studied in and after the Sūtra period only by the male members of the first three Varṇas, the chanting (Japa) of Vedic texts for the removal of sins was not possible for Śūdras.

[5]:

Ravindra M. Muley has collected and studied the expiatory rites prescribed in Śrautasūtras and has described the expiatory rites for removing of ritual lapses in Agnyādheya, Cāturmāsya, Agrayaṇeṣṭi, Paśuyāga, Darśapūrṇamāsa, Sautrāmaṇi, Agnihotra, Agniṣṭoma, Jyotiṣṭoma and Aśvamedha. See, Śrauta Prāyaścitta Kośaḥ, Pratibha Prakashan, Delhi, 2004.

[6]:

Taittarīya-brāhmaṇa, 3.7.2.5-7.

[7]:

Taittarīya-brāhmaṇa, 3.7.2.5-7, Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 3.11.

[8]:

In his study G.U. Thite divides expiation into Brāhmaṇas are eleven in number. They are reciting verses, offerings, substitutes, uttering Vyāhṛtis, giving to the priests, repetition of the action, symbolical performance, Avāntaradīkṣā, non-ritual Prāyaścittis, no Prāyaścitti and Prāyaścitti by means of Sāman. However, the present study of expiatory rites in Brāhmaṇas is divided into seven in number. Because uttering Vyāhṛtis and Prāyaścitti by means of Sāman, no-Prāyaścittis, repetition of action echoes the same nature of reciting verse, non-ritual expiatory rites, and substituting Prāyaścitta respectively.

[9]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 3.5.3.17.

[10]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 1.1.4.9.

[11]:

Thite, G.U., op.cit., p.167. Also, see Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 5.32, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 12.4.1.8, Jaiminīya-brāhmaṇa, 1.53, 60, 63.

[12]:

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 7.6.

[13]:

Taittarīya-brāhmaṇa, 1.7.3.5.

[14]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 12.4.3.1-10.

[15]:

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 7.9.

[16]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 13.3.8.1-6.

[17]:

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 7.5.

[18]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 13.1.6.3.

[19]:

Jaiminīya-brāhmaṇa, 1.353.

[20]:

Tāṇḍyamahā-brāhmaṇa, 9.5.3; Jaiminīya-brāhmaṇa, 1.354-355.

[21]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 6.6.4.7.

[22]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 12.4.2.1. And also see Jaiminīya-brāhmaṇa, 1.60.

[23]:

GB, 2.1.26.

[24]:

Cf. Thite, G.U., Sacrifice in the Brāhmaṇa Texts, p.168.

[25]:

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 7.12, Kauṣītakī-brāhmaṇa, 2.5, Jaiminīya-brāhmaṇa, 1.62-63.

[26]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 3.9.2.8-9.

[27]:

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 6.27, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 12.4.1.12.

[28]:

The details of the significance of Dīkṣā in Vedic sacrifices, See, Sacrifice in Brāhmaṇa Texts, Thite, G.U., Dept. of Sanskrit, University of Poona, 1975, pp. 112-123.

[29]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 3.4.3.1.

[30]:

Thite, G.U., op.cit., Introduction, p. 2.

[31]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 13.4.2.1. Jaiminīya-brāhmaṇa, 1.61-62.and also see GB, 2.1.26.