Preface

Expiatory rites are the integral parts of every religion and culture. They are performed mainly for the purification and for removal of sins. The notion of sin is the basis of entire principles and practices of expiations in all religious systems. In India, different branches of religious literature like Veda, Dharmaśāstra and Purāṇa have discussed the concept of expiatory rites and have directed the people to perform them in a stipulated order. During the time of Brāhmaṇa texts, expiation had been linked with the rituals of Yajñas and it was arbitrated that expiatory rites are to be observed for the flaws, inauspiciousness, sins and desecrations happened in rituals. It was believed that the absence of expiation shall leave the rites incomplete and bring misery to the doers of Yajñas. The Āgamic or Tantric literature also contains rites of expiations. The social and cultural background of Tantric expiatory rites is different from that of Vedic expiatory rites. But Keralite tradition of Tantric literature and the expiatory rites, which mostly related to the temple rituals, are influenced by several features of Dharmaśāstras and Purāṇas.

The sociologists and scholars in cultural history and allied subjects have enquired regarding the social functions of ritualistic flaws, sins and expiations. Among the scholars, who have studied expiation in Vedic corpus and Dharmaśāstras, the foremost names to be remembered are P.V. Kane, G.U. Thite, Hima Gupta, Ravindra A Muley, Roop Kishore Shastri, Patrick Olivelle, Lubin Timothy and Michel M B Zrenner. Moreover, Alexis Sanderson, Dominic Goodall and R. Satyanarayanan have delved certain contexts of expiation in relation to Śaiva-Āgamas. Yet, it seems that there does not have any research which has made a comprehensive study of expiation dealt with in the Keralite Tantric ritual manuals. The present study, ‘Expiatory Rites in Keralite Tantra -A Critical Analysis’, is an attempt for the same with an analytical and critical perspective. It is very significant, considering the impact of the Tantric expiatory rites on the social and cultural history of Kerala. In addition, this study becomes distinct from the earlier studies as it examines the influence of Vedic and Āgamic rites and the ideas of Dharmaśāstra on the Tantric expiation of Kerala. Besides the primary texts, some temple records and stone edicts of Kerala have been utilized in this study.

This study consists of five chapters. Chapter one, titled ‘Expiatory Rites: Concept and Evolution’ analyses different notions of expiations and various ideologies related to it. This chapter examines the relation of the concept of expiation with the ideas of Pāpa and Puṇya, the theories of Karma, Punarjanma and Mokṣa. The use of expiation for curing diseases and the difference of expiation from punishment are also examined. An attempt to analyze the expiatory rites explained in various branches of literature like Vedic Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇas, Dharmasūtras, Smṛtis and Purāṇas is made in this chapter. The chapter also mentions the notion of expiation seen in Buddhism, Jainism and other popular world religions.

Chapter two entitled ‘Expiatory Rites in Āgamic Literaure’ explores the concepts of expiation in Āgamas and the social circumstances through which they were formed. The selected ritual manuals of Śaivas, Vaiṣṇavas and Śāktas are subjected in this study. The present study mainly concentrates on the expiatory rites in Siddhāntāgamas and Pāñcarātrāgamas, because the influence of these texts clearly visible in Keralite Tantra.

In chapter three titled, ‘Expiatory Rites in Kerala Tantric Ritual Manuals’ a comprehensive analysis of expiations illustrated in temple related Keralite Tantric texts is attempted. The fourth chapter titled ‘Socio-Cultural Aspects of Expiatory Rites’ examines how the ritualistic forms of Tantric expiation intervened in the unique social and cultural spaces of Kerala. The impact of the perspectives and practices of expiations is critically evaluated with the support of available historical documents of Kerala temples. The fifth chapter is the conclusion. The major observations and findings of the study are listed out here. The relevant portions of some unpublished Tantric treatises, some temple inscriptions and documents on expiations and some tables on expiations seen in Keralite texts, etc. are given in the appendices. A select bibliography is also given at the end.

The present study is prepared under the supervision of Dr.K.M. Sangamesan, Associate Professor in Sanskrit Sahitya, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady. He has provided me a generous support and inspiration throughout my research work. It is due to his impeccable and persuasive guidance and constructive suggestions, I could mold my work in the present form. I am exceedingly thankful to him for the valuable guidance and instructions given for the preparation of this study.

I also express sincere thanks to Dr.Dharmaraj Adat, Former Head of the Dept. of Sanskrit Sahitya, for his wholehearted support and valuable suggestions. Thanks are also due to Dr.V.R.Muralidharan, Head of the Dept. of Sanskrit Sahitya, for his kindness and precious support for this study. I express my deepest thanks to Dr.Dominic Goodall, Head Ecole Francise D’ Extreme Orient, Dr.R.Satyanarayanan, Dr.T.Ganesan and research faculties of French Institute Pondicherry. I am extremely thankful to Dr.S.A.S.Sarma, Ecole Francise D’ Extreme Orient Pondicherry, for giving me valuable intuitive academic and intellectual orientation for carrying out the study. I am very thankful to Dr.C.Rajendran, Dr.P.V. Ramankutty, Dr.Aju Narayanan, Dr.N.J.Francis, Dr.P.I.Ajithan, Dr.V.Nirmala, K.S. Narayanan, V.R.Arun Jagannathan, Dr.M.Ranjini, K.Shibi and N.Deepa for their precious suggestions. I am indebted to Dr.Suja T.V., Asst. Prof, Dept. of English, Maharajas College, Ernakulam, who compassionately read this thesis and gave precious comments on this study. I am obliged to late Sree Velayudhan Vadavucode for his great support and motivation. I am beholden to the library authorities of the Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Ecole Fracaise D’ Extreme Orient, Pondicherry and French Institute Pondicherry. I am grateful to my teachers, colleagues and friends for giving significant suggestions and guidelines in preparing this study.

I also express heartfelt thanks to the university authorities, Department of SC/ST welfare, Government of Kerala and University Grants Commission, Delhi, for providing necessary facilities for my studies. I owe an undying gratitude to the lovable support given by my wife R.Reshma and my parents.

SYAMKUMAR, T.S.