Part 21 - The concept of Śabda or Verbal testimony

Śabda or verbal testimony is the fourth kind of valid knowledge. Etymologically, the term śabda signifies sound (dhvani), literally it stands for word and epistemology it means to a source of knowledge. According to Gautama, verbal testimony is an instruction of a reliable person āptopadeśa.^[1] The reliability of the person making a statement is a condition ensuring the validity of the knowledge derived in this way. The term āptopadeśa means a communication from or assertion of an āptapuruṣa (trustworthy person). Vātsyāyana points out that a reliable person is one who possesses the direct and right knowledge of things, who is willing to communicate his knowledge and who speaks about it.^[2] He further says that the word āpta is derived from āpti which means immediate right cognition of things (sāksatkāraṇamarthasya). One who acts or proceeds through the direct right cognition of things is called āpta.^[3] This definition of a reliable person is equally applicable to the seer (ṛsi), noble (ārya) and barbarian (mleccha person without Vedic practices). The activity of all these people is carried on through such word.

In this way, the activities of God (deva), man (manuṣya), and animal (tiryac) are mentioned with the help of instruments of valid knowledge and not otherwise.^[4] Uddyotakara introduces a controversy over the interpretation of the of the compound āptopadeśa in order to refute the contention of Dignāga that verbal testimony is to be included either in inference or in perception. He clarifies that it is the element of verbalization which is important in this source of knowledge and which separates it from inference and perception. The Bhāṣyakāra say that in the sūtra of Gautam, if the word āptopadeśa means that the person making the assertion is truthful, then that is inference only. If, on the other hand, it means that the fact asserted here is true, then that is known by perception. Uddyotakara refutes this view saying that the meaning of the above sentence is not correctly grasped by the opponents. It means the cognition of things connected with the senses as also not connected with them which is expressed by words.^[5]

Though Vācaspati has not deviated from the Bhāṣya and Vārtika regarding the concept of śabda, he has elaborately explained the sūtra and clarified its meaning. He says that in the definition, āptodeśa, upadeśa means the words uttered. It means the knowledge of sentences as well as the knowledge of the meaning of sentences.^[6] When the knowledge of the sentence is the pramāṇa, the knowledge of its meaning is the fruit or the resultant cognition. When the knowledge of the meaning of the sentence is the pramāṇa, then the idea of accepting or discarding the thing is the fruit.

Although the Vedic sentence like sadeva saumyedamagra āsīd^[7] etc. do not engage or refrain anybody to anything, even they are upadeśas as they denote the final beatitude of men.^[8]

Vācaspati then proceeds to explain the meaning of the term āpta. He follows Bhāṣya and Vārtika in this respect. He reiterates that the assertion of the reliable person such as the ṛṣis, mlecchas etc. is śabda and not of those thinkers who are pervaded by delusion like Buddha, Ṛṣabha (i.e., Jaina) etc.^[9] Vācaspati also asserts that even a mleccha can be on āpta if he torus out to be reliable. He gives an example. When a robber, who has stolen everything from a traveler, is asked to point out the path, indicates what torus out to be a right path, then that person is an āpta.^[10] In this way Vācaspati maintains that for being āpta it is not necessary that he should be free from all defects.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

āptopadeśaḥ śabdaḥ. Nyāyasūtra, 1.1.7

[2]:

āptaḥ khalu sākṣātkṛtadharmā yathādṛṣṭasyārthasya cikhyāpayiṣayā prayukta upadeṣṭā. Nyāyabhāṣya on Ibid.

[3]:

āptistayā pravartate ityāptaḥ. Ibid.

[4]:

āpta khalu sākṣātkṛtadharmā yathādṛṣṭasyārthasya…….ṛṣyāryamlecshānāṃ samānaṃ lakṣaṇaṃ….. …..devamanuṣyatiraścāṃ vyavahārāḥ prakalpyante nā’tonyatheti. Nyāyabhāṣya on Ibid.

[5]:

nāyaṃ sūtrārthaḥ āptopadeśaḥ śabda iti, api tu indriyasaṃbandhāsaṃbaddhesvartheṣu yā śabdollekhena pratipattiḥ sā’gamasyārthaḥ. Nyāyavārtika, p.57

[6]:

upadiśyate’neneti upadeśo vākyajñānaṃ tadarthajñānaṃ vā abhidhīyate. Nyāyavārtikatātparyaṭīkā, p. 201

[7]:

chāndogyopaniṣad, 6.2.1

[8]:

yadyapi sadeva somyedamagra āsīd ityādi vacanaṃ kvasit na pravartayati, kutaścid vā na nivartayati puruṣaṃ tathāpi puruṣaśreyo’bhitta ityupadeśa ityucyate. Nyāyavārtikatātparyaṭīkā, p. 201

[9]:

āptānāṃ ṛṣyāryamlecchānāmupadeśaḥ śabdo na tvanāptanāṃ māyāmohanirmitānāṃ buddharṣabhādīnāṃ pramāṇaviruddhakṣanikasarva dharmanairātmyavādināmiti. Ibid.p.202

[10]:

mlecchā’pi hi pratipathamavasthitāḥ pānthānāmapahṛatasarvasvā-mārgākhyāne hetudarśanasūnyā bhavantyāptā iti. Ibid.